Website Design

Website Design

Web design is the skill of creating presentations of content (usually hypertext or hypermedia ) that is delivered to an end-user through the World Wide Web , by way of a Web browser or other Web-enabled software like Internet television clients, microblogging clients and RSS readers .
The intent of web design [ 1 ] is to create a web site—a collection of electronic files that reside on a web server / servers and present content and interactive features/interfaces to the end user in form of Web pages once requested. Such elements as text, bit-mapped images ( GIFs , JPEGs ), forms can be placed on the page using HTML / XHTML / XML tags. Displaying more complex media (vector graphics, animations, videos, sounds) requires plug-ins such as Flash, QuickTime , Java run-time environment, etc. Plug-ins are also embedded into web page by using HTML / XHTML tags.
Improvements in browsers' compliance with W3C standards prompted a widespread acceptance and usage of XHTML / XML in conjunction with Cascading Style Sheets ( CSS ) to position and manipulate web page elements and objects. Latest standards and proposals aim at leading to browsers ' ability to deliver a wide variety of media and accessibility options to the client possibly without employing plug-ins .
Typically web pages are classified as static or dynamic:

Static pages don’t change content and layout with every request unless a human ( web master/ programmer ) manually updates the page. A simple HTML page is an example of static content.
Dynamic pages adapt their content and/or appearance depending on end-user ’s input/interaction or changes in the computing environment (user, time, database modifications, etc.) Content can be changed on the client side (end-user's computer) by using client-side scripting languages ( JavaScript , JScript , Actionscript , etc.) to alter DOM elements ( DHTML ). Dynamic content is often compiled on the server utilizing server-side scripting languages ( Perl , PHP , ASP , JSP , ColdFusion , etc.). Both approaches are usually used in complex applications.

With growing specialization in the information technology field there is a strong tendency to draw a clear line between web design and web development.
Web design is a kind of graphic design intended for development and styling of objects of the Internet's information environment to provide them with high-end consumer features and aesthetic qualities. The offered definition separates web design from web programming, emphasizing the functional features of a web site, as well as positioning web design as a kind of graphic design. [ 2 ]
The process of designing web pages , web sites , web applications or multimedia for the Web may utilize multiple disciplines, such as animation , authoring , communication design , corporate identity , graphic design , human-computer interaction , information architecture , interaction design , marketing , photography , search engine optimization and typography .

Markup languages (such as HTML , XHTML and XML )
Style sheet languages (such as CSS and XSL )
Client-side scripting (such as JavaScript )
Server-side scripting (such as PHP and ASP )
Database technologies (such as MySQL and PostgreSQL )
Multimedia technologies (such as Flash and Silverlight )

Web pages and web sites can be static pages , or can be programmed to be dynamic pages that automatically adapt content or visual appearance depending on a variety of factors, such as input from the end-user, input from the Webmaster or changes in the computing environment (such as the site's associated database having been modified).
With growing specialization within communication design and information technology fields, there is a strong tendency to draw a clear line between web design specifically for web pages and web development for the overall logistics of all web-based services.




Contents


1 Accessible Web design
2 History
3 Website planning

3.1 Context
3.2 Purpose
3.3 Audience
3.4 Content
3.5 Compatibility and restrictions
3.6 Planning documentation


4 Website design

4.1 Multidisciplinary requirements
4.2 Issues
4.3 Environment
4.4 Collaboration
4.5 Form versus function
4.6 Layout

4.6.1 Layout types
4.6.2 Layout concerns


4.7 Device
4.8 Tableless Web design


5 See also
6 References
7 External links





//

Accessible Web design
Main article: Web accessibility
To be accessible, web pages and sites must conform to certain accessibility principles. These accessibility principles are known as the WCAG when talking about content. These can be grouped into the following main areas. [ 3 ]

Use semantic markup that provides a meaningful structure to the document (i.e. web page)
Semantic markup also refers to semantically organizing the web page structure and publishing web services description accordingly so that they can be recognized by other web services on different web pages. Standards for semantic web are set by IEEE
Use a valid markup language that conforms to a published DTD or Schema
Provide text equivalents for any non-text components (e.g. images, multimedia)
Use hyperlinks that make sense when read out of context. (e.g. avoid "Click Here")
Don't use frames
Use CSS rather than HTML tables for layout
Author the page so that when the source code is read line-by-line by user agents (such as a screen readers ) it remains intelligible. (Using tables for design will often result in information that is not

However, W3C permits an exception where tables for layout either make sense when linearized or an alternate version (perhaps linearized) is made available.
Website accessibility is also changing as it is impacted by Content Management Systems that allow changes to be made to webpages without the need of obtaining programming language knowledge.
It is very important that several different components of Web development and interaction can work together in order for the Web to be accessible to people with disabilities. These components include:

content - the information in a Web page or Web application, including:

natural information such as text, images, and sounds
code or markup that defines structure, presentation, etc.


Web browsers, media players, and other "user agents"
assistive technology, in some cases - screen readers, alternative keyboards, switches, scanning software, etc.
users' knowledge, experiences, and in some cases, adaptive strategies using the Web
developers - designers, coders, authors, etc., including developers with disabilities and users who contribute content
authoring tools - software that creates Web sites
evaluation tools - Web accessibility evaluation tools, HTML validators, CSS validators, etc.

History
Tim Berners-Lee published what is considered to be the first website in August 1991. [ 4 ] Berners-Lee was the first to combine Internet communication (which had been carrying email and the Usenet for decades) with hypertext (which had also been around for decades, but limited to browsing information stored on a single computer, such as interactive CD-ROM design). Websites are written in a markup language called HTML , and early versions of HTML were very basic, only giving a website's basic structure (headings and paragraphs), and the ability to link using hypertext . This was new and different from existing forms of communication - users could easily navigate to other pages by following hyperlinks from page to page.
As the Web and web design progressed, the markup language changed to become more complex and flexible, giving the ability to add objects like images and tables to a page. Features like tables, which were originally intended to be used to display tabular information, were soon subverted for use as invisible layout devices. With the advent of Cascading Style Sheets (CSS), table-based layout is commonly regarded as outdated. Database integration technologies such as server-side scripting and design standards like W3C further changed and enhanced the way the Web is made. As times change, websites are changing the code on the inside and visual design on the outside with ever-evolving programs and utilities.
With the progression of the Web, tens of thousands of web design companies have been established around the world to serve the growing demand for such work. As with much of the information technology industry, many web design companies have been established in technology parks in the developing world as well as many Western design companies setting up offices in countries such as India, Romania, and Russia to take advantage of the relatively lower labor rates found in such countries.
Website planning
Purposing web design is a complex, but essential ongoing activity. Before creating and uploading a website, it is important to take the time to plan exactly what is needed in the website. Thoroughly considering the audience or target market, as well as defining the purpose and deciding what content will be developed, are extremely important.
Context
Web design is similar (in a very simplistic way) to traditional print publishing. Every website is an information display container, just as a book; and every web page is like the page in a book . However, web design uses a framework based on digital code and display technology to construct and maintain an environment to distribute information in multiple formats. Taken to its fullest potential, web design is undoubtedly the most sophisticated and increasingly complex method to support communication in today's world.
Purpose
It is essential to define the purpose of the website as one of the first steps in the planning process. A purpose statement should show focus based on what the website will accomplish and what the users will get from it. A clearly defined purpose will help the rest of the planning process as the audience is identified and the content of the site is developed. Setting short and long term goals for the website will help make the purpose clear and plan for the future when expansion, modification, and improvement will take place. setting a goal practices and measurable objectives should be identified to track the progress of the site and determine success.
Audience
Defining the audience is a key step in the website planning process. The audience is the group of people who are expected to visit your website – the market being targeted. These people will be viewing the website for a specific reason and it is important to know exactly what they are looking for when they visit the site. A clearly defined purpose or goal of the site as well as an understanding of what visitors want to do or feel when they come to your site will help to identify the target audience. Upon considering who is most likely to need or use the content, a list of characteristics common to the users such as:

Audience Characteristics
Information Preferences
Computer Specifications
Web Experience

Taking into account the characteristics of the audience will allow an effective website to be created that will deliver the desired content to the target audience.
Content
Content evaluation and organization requires that the purpose of the website be clearly defined. Collecting a list of the necessary content then organizing it according to the audience's needs is a key step in website planning. In the process of gathering the content being offered, any items that do not support the defined purpose or accomplish target audience objectives should be removed. It is a good idea to test the content and purpose on a focus group and compare the offerings to the audience needs. The next step is to organize the basic information structure by categorizing the content and organizing it according to user needs. Each category should be named with a concise and descriptive title that will become a link on the website. Planning for the site's content ensures that the wants or needs of the target audience and the purpose of the site will be fulfilled.
Compatibility and restrictions
Because of the market share of modern browsers (depending on your target market), the compatibility of your website with the viewers is restricted. For instance, a website that is designed for the majority of websurfers will be limited to the use of valid XHTML 1.0 Strict or older, Cascading Style Sheets Level 1, and 1024x768 display resolution . This is because Internet Explorer is not fully W3C standards compliant with the modularity of XHTML 1.1 and the majority of CSS beyond 1. A target market of more alternative browser (e.g. Firefox , Safari and Opera ) users allow for more W3C compliance and thus a greater range of options for a web designer.
Another restriction on webpage design is the use of different image file formats . The majority of users can support GIF , JPEG , and PNG (with restrictions). Again Internet Explorer is the major restriction here, not fully supporting PNG's advanced transparency features, resulting in the GIF format still being the most widely used graphic file format for transparent images.
Many website incompatibilities go unnoticed by the designer and unreported by the users. The only way to be certain a website will work on a particular platform is to test it on that platform.
Planning documentation
Documentation is used to visually plan the site while taking into account the purpose, audience and content, to design the site structure, content and interactions that are most suitable for the website. Documentation may be considered a prototype for the website – a model which allows the website layout to be reviewed, resulting in suggested changes, improvements and/or enhancements. This review process increases the likelihood of success of the website.
The first step may involve information architecture in which the content is categorized and the information structure is formulated. The information structure is used to develop a document or visual diagram called a site map . This creates a visual of how the web pages or content will be interconnected, and may help in deciding what content will be placed on what pages.
In addition to planning the structure, the layout and interface of individual pages may be planned using a storyboard . In the process of storyboarding, a record is made of the description, purpose and title of each page in the site, and they are linked together according to the most effective and logical diagram type. Depending on the number of pages required for the website, documentation methods may include using pieces of paper and drawing lines to connect them, or creating the storyboard using computer software.
Some or all of the individual pages may be designed in greater detail as a website wireframe , a mock up model or comprehensive layout of what the page will actually look like. This is often done in a graphic program, or layout design program. The wireframe has no working functionality, only planning, though it can be used for selling ideas to other web design companies.
Website design



Wikiversity has learning materials about Web design


Web design is similar (in a very simplistic way) to traditional print publishing. Every website is an information display container, just as a book is a container; and every web page is like the page in a book. However, web design uses a framework based on digital code and display technology to construct and maintain an environment to distribute information in multiple formats. Taken to its fullest potential, web design is undoubtedly the most sophisticated and increasingly complex method to support communication in today's world. [ 5 ]
For the typical web sites, the basic aspects of design are:

The content: the substance, and information on the site should be relevant to the site and should target the area of the public that the website is concerned with.
The usability: the site should be user-friendly, with the interface and navigation simple and reliable.
The appearance: the graphics and text should include a single style that flows throughout, to show consistency. The style should be professional, appealing and relevant.
The visibility: the site must also be easy to find via most, if not all, major search engines and advertisement media.

A web site typically consists of text and images . The first page of a web site is known as the Home page or Index. Some web sites use what is commonly called a Splash Page. Splash pages might include a welcome message, language or region selection, or disclaimer. Each web page within a web site is an HTML file which has its own URL . After each web page is created, they are typically linked together using a navigation menu composed of hyperlinks . Faster browsing speeds have led to shorter attention spans and more demanding online visitors and this has resulted in less use of Splash Pages, particularly where commercial web sites are concerned [ citation needed ] .
Once a web site is completed, it must be published or uploaded in order to be viewable to the public over the internet . This may be done using an FTP client . Once published, the web master may use a variety of techniques to increase the traffic, or hits, that the web site receives. This may include submitting the web site to a search engine such as Google , Bing or Yahoo , exchanging links with other web sites, creating affiliations with similar web sites, etc.
Multidisciplinary requirements
Web site design crosses multiple disciplines of multiple information systems , information technology and communication design . The web site is an information system whose components are sometimes classified as front-end and back-end . The observable content (e.g. page layout , user interface , graphics , text , audio ) is known as the front-end. The back-end comprises the organization and efficiency of the source code, invisible scripted functions, and the server-side components that process the output from the front-end. Depending on the size of a Web development project, it may be carried out by a multi-skilled individual (sometimes called a web master ), or a project manager may oversee collaborative design between group members with specialized skills.
Issues
By its very nature, web design is conflicted, involving rigid technical conformance and personal creative balance. Rapid technological change complicates acquiring and deploying suitable resources to maintain web presence.
Environment
Layout is a double edged sword: on the one hand, it is the expression of a framework that actively shapes the web designer. On the other hand, as the designer adapts that framework to projects, layout is the means of content delivery . Publishing a web engages communication throughout the production process as well as within the product created. Publication implies adaptation of culture and content standards. Web design incorporates multiple intersections between many layers of technical and social understanding, demanding creative direction, design element structure , and some form of social organization . Differing goals and methods resolve effectively in successful deployment of education, software and team management during the design process. However, many competing and evolving platforms and environments challenge acceptance, completion and continuity of every design product.
Collaboration
Early Web design was less integrated with companies’ advertising campaigns , customer transactions , extranets , intranets and social networking . Web sites were seen largely as static online brochures or database connection points, disconnected from the broader scopes of a business or project. Many Web sites are still disconnected from the broader project scope. As a result, many Web sites are needlessly difficult to use, indirect in their way of communicating, and suffer from a 'disconnected' or ineffective bureaucratic information architecture .
Form versus function
A web developer may pay more attention to how a page looks while neglecting other copywriting and search engine optimization functions such as the readability of text, the ease of navigating the site, or how easily the visitors are going to find the site. As a result, the designers may end up in disputes where some want more decorative graphics at the expense of keyword -rich text, bullet lists , and text links . Assuming a false dichotomy that form and function are mutually exclusive overlooks the possibility of integrating multiple disciplines for a collaborative and synergistic solution. In many cases form follows function . Because some graphics serve communication purposes in addition to aesthetics , how well a site works may depend on the graphic design ideas as well as the professional writing considerations.
When using a lot of graphics, a web page can load slowly, often irritating the user. This has become less of a problem as the internet has evolved with high-speed internet and the use of vector graphics . However there is still an ongoing engineering challenge to increase bandwidth and an artistic challenge to minimize the amount of graphics and their file sizes . This challenge is compounded since increased bandwidth encourages more graphics with larger file sizes.
When faced with a large database and many requirements, a design group may throw far too much information for a server to manage. Alternative technology or additional structure (even another server or site) may be required to fit the demand.
Layout

Layout types
Layout refers to the dimensioning of content in a device display, and the delivery of media in a content related stream. Web design layouts result in visual content frameworks: these frameworks can be fixed, they can use units of measure that are relative, or they can provide fluid layout with proportional dimensions. The deployment flowchart (a useful tool on any design project) should address content layout. Many units of measure exist, but here are some popular dimension formats:

Pixel measure results in fixed or static content
Em measure results in proportional content that is relative to font-size
Percent measure results in fluid content that shrinks and grows to "fit" display windows

Proportional, liquid and hybrid layout are also referred to as dynamic design. Hybrid layout incorporates any combination of fixed, proportional or fluid elements within (or pointing to) a single page. The hybrid web design framework is made possible by digital internet conventions generally prescribed by the W3C . If any layout does not appear as it should, it is very likely that it does not conform to standard design principles, or that those standards conflict with standard layout elements. Current knowledge of standards is essential to effective hybrid design.
The earliest web pages used fixed layouts without exception. In many business pages fixed layouts are preferred today as they easily contain static tabled information. Fixed layout enforces device display convention, as viewers must set their display to at least a certain width to easily view content. This width can include display of corporate logos, cautions, advertisements and any other target content. Design frameworks for fixed layout may need to include coding for multiple display devices.
Hybrid design maintains most static content control, but is adapted to textual publishing, and for readers, to conventional ( printed ) display. Hybrid layouts are generally easy on the eye and are found on most sites that distribute traditional images and text to readers. For some sites, hybrid design makes an otherwise cold text column appear warm and balanced. A good example of hybrid layout is Wordpress , where liquid design is now optional, and movie and auditory media is stretching the envelope.
Fluid design is useful where content is delivered to an 'unknown device' population. Appropriate liquid code displays images, text and spaces proportional to display size. Someone with a handheld can see view and interact with the same content as someone using a large desktop monitor. However, scaling of content for a variety of devices has more recently evolved with modern web browsers, allowing users to see the same layout across all devices.
Layout concerns





This section is written like a personal reflection or essay and may require cleanup . Please help improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style . (December 2009)


As W3C conventions evolve, the use of design "space" is becoming less static and more fluid in its potential. The result is that old layouts look ... old. In dealing with font layout, even expressed as ems, a static core cannot be escaped and often anchors most page content. However, as new standards are adopted by device manufacturers, viewers notice a wider spectrum of content and a greater interaction between and through content. For the World Wide Web Consortium drawing up tomorrows layout conventions, new media types and methods are increasingly in the mix. It is a true double axiom that 'content is all about layout', and 'layout is all about content'. We could say that layout is what designers squeeze into available technology — content is the culture manifested in the layout. "Space' is the envelope holding layout and content together. Space communicates style (layout appearance) to the target population. Understanding how to adapt space to this layout-content relationship is essential to web design. Every design's survivability depends on its sensitivity to emerging technology (within the cultures that its framework is servicing), and immediate acceptance depends on the layout or presentation of that content. On every page, no content is more susceptible to changes and variations in standards, than space. While the professional designer casually admits that 90% of design code is used to adapt space, most of his current work deploys spatial manipulations being used to actively reshape Internet communication.
Conceptual barriers to adequate layout abound! Presently layout is challenged by conflicting convention that makes it impossible to fit liquid and hybrid layout to the bottom corners of a display. Simply put, display device manufactures use the top right and/or left corners to display content. For non-standard equipment, setting custom fixed layout to their device is still seen by some businesses as a means of increasing revenue, as they can sell a 'unique' display. This business approach, domainating the digital market at the end of the last century, is not so useful today. However, some would claim a decade behind schedule, CSS3 and HTML5 are finally taking the four penultimate display reference point seriously. Just in time for 3 dimensional vector layout to tangle designers' templates in conundrums!
A common misconception among designers is to assume their layout is liquid because initial space and text container widths are in percents. However, their 'liquid' framework, while adhering to focused conventions, failed to manage graphic content. A subsequent edit placing a large image on the page, destroys the page appearance . When managing a design framework, it is critical that layout address content, convention and user interaction.
Device
On the web the designer has no control over several factors, including the size of the browser window, the web browser used, the input devices used ( operating system , mouse , touch screen , voice command , text , teletype , cell phone , or other hand-held ), and the size, design, and other characteristics of the fonts that users have available (installed) and enabled (preference) on their device. Unique manufacture and conflicting device contentions are further complicated by varying browser interpretations of the same content, and some content automatically can trigger browser changes. Web designers do well to study and become proficient at removing competitive device and software markup so that web pages display as they are coded to display. Eric Meyers, a well known educator and developer, is one of many resources who have spear-headed HTML reset coding. While they cannot yet leave one local environment to control another, web designers can adjust target environments to remove much common markup that alters or corrupts their web content. Because device manufacturers are highly protective of their patent markup, Meyers and others caution that reset remains experimental .
Tableless Web design
Main article: Tableless web design
When Netscape Navigator 4 dominated the browser market, the popular solution available for designers to lay out a Web page was by using tables. Often even simple designs for a page would require dozens of tables nested in each other. Many web templates in Dreamweaver and other WYSIWYG editors still use this technique today. Navigator 4 didn't support CSS to a useful degree, so it simply wasn't used.
After the browser wars subsided, and the dominant browsers such as Internet Explorer became more W3C compliant, designers started turning toward CSS as an alternate means of laying out their pages. CSS proponents say that tables should be used only for tabular data, not for layout. Using CSS instead of tables also returns HTML to a semantic markup , which helps bots and search engines understand what's going on in a web page. All modern Web browsers support CSS with different degrees of limitations .
However, one of the main points against CSS is that by relying on it exclusively, control is essentially relinquished as each browser has its own quirks which result in a slightly different page display. This is especially a problem as not every browser supports the same subset of CSS rules. There are the means to apply different styles depending on which browser and version are used but incorporating these exceptions makes maintaining the style sheets more difficult as there are styles in more than one place to update.
For designers who are used to table-based layouts, developing Web sites in CSS often becomes a matter of trying to replicate what can be done with tables, leading some to find CSS design rather cumbersome due to lack of familiarity. For example, at one time it was rather difficult to produce certain design elements, such as vertical positioning, and full-length footers in a design using absolute positions. With the abundance of CSS resources available online today, though, designing with reasonable adherence to standards involves little more than applying CSS 2.1 or CSS 3 to properly structured markup.
These days most modern browsers have solved most of these quirks in CSS rendering and this has made many different CSS layouts possible. However, some people continue to use old browsers, and designers need to keep this in mind, and allow for graceful degrading of pages in older browsers. Most notable among these old browsers is Internet Explorer 6, which is viewed in the web design community as becoming the new Netscape Navigator 4 — a block that holds the World Wide Web back from converting to CSS design. However, the W3 Consortium has made CSS in combination with XHTML the standard for web design.

Video Production

Video Production

Professional video production , or videography, is the art and service of videotaping, editing, and distributing a finished video product. This can include television production, commercial video production, and corporate and event videos.




Contents


1 Corporate
2 Event
3 See also
4 Notes





//

Corporate
Corporate video production covers a wide range of purposes from corporate communication, training and education, videotaping conferences and conventions, and sales. Video productions can be viewed live in-person, as is the case of I-Mag (image magnification) at a conference where a live video feed from a speaker is shown on a large projection screen; live remotely, as is the case with webcasting where participants can view a live video stream from their computers with an internet connection; or after the event on a variety of playback mediums, including playback from the original camera tape or memory based recording device or an edited version from a website video, optical disc, magnetic tape, or portable video device.
Elements of video production include (1) Pre-Production, (2) Production, and (3) Post Production. All video productions are organized this way to ensure that the process is a seamless one, and the final-result is as envisioned. Pre-production is the planning stage of your shoot, and occurs before the camera starts rolling. By creating storyboards, scouting locations, and figuring out the budget ahead of time, the goal is for your production to be free of unnecessary worry. Production is the shooting stage of your shoot, which includes cinematography, audio, lights, as well as directing, art and effects. Post production begins when your camera stops rolling. All footage is then logged and captured, organized, and then edited. But Post Production does not stop here. Effects and transitions are designed, music is added, and color compositions are made.
Event
Video production can be used at sporting, school, stage, wedding, church, and similar events to provide recordings of the events. Event video productions range in distribution from a wedding video that is custom made for a bride and groom and their immediate family and friends, to a dance recital where dozens to hundreds of videos are sold to individual dancers. Event video production can also be used to broadcast events live to viewers at home such as a press conference or concert. Video of live events can be sent by microwave or satellite from the event location to a studio in order to be broadcast. [ 1 ]

seminars

seminars

Seminar is, generally, a form of academic instruction, either at an academic institution or offered by a commercial or professional organization. It has the function of bringing together small groups for recurring meetings, focusing each time on some particular subject, in which everyone present is requested to actively participate. This is often accomplished through an ongoing Socratic dialogue with a seminar leader or instructor, or through a more formal presentation of research. Normally, participants must not be beginners in the field under discussion (at US universities, seminar classes are generally reserved for upper-class students, although at UK and Australian universities seminars are often used for all years). The idea behind the seminar system is to familiarize students more extensively with the methodology of their chosen subject and also to allow them to interact with examples of the practical problems that always occur during research work. It is essentially a place where assigned readings are discussed, questions can be raised and debates can be conducted. It is relatively informal, at least compared to the lecture system of academic instruction.
In some European universities, a seminar may be a large lecture course, especially when conducted by a renowned thinker (regardless of the size of the audience or the scope of student participation in discussion). Some non-English speaking countries in Europe use the word seminar (e.g., German Seminar , Slovenian seminar , etc.) to refer to a university class that includes a term paper or project, as opposed to a lecture class (i.e., German Vorlesung , Slovenian predavanje , etc.). This does not correspond to English use of the term.
Increasingly, the term "seminar" is used to describe a commercial event (though sometimes free to attend) where delegates are given information and instruction in a subject such as property investing, other types of investing, Internet marketing, self-improvement or a wide range of topics, by experts in that field.

graphic design

graphic design

The term graphic design can refer to a number of artistic and professional disciplines which focus on visual communication and presentation. Various methods are used to create and combine symbols, images and/or words to create a visual representation of ideas and messages. A graphic designer may use typography , visual arts and page layout techniques to produce the final result. Graphic design often refers to both the process (designing) by which the communication is created and the products (designs) which are generated.
Common uses of graphic design include magazines, advertisements and product packaging. For example, a product package might include a logo or other artwork, organized text and pure design elements such as shapes and color which unify the piece. Composition is one of the most important features of graphic design especially when using pre-existing materials or diverse elements.




Contents


1 History

1.1 The advent of printing
1.2 Emergence of the design industry
1.3 Twentieth century design


2 Applications
3 Skills

3.1 Visual arts
3.2 Typography
3.3 Page layout
3.4 Interface design
3.5 Printmaking
3.6 Chromatics


4 Tools

4.1 Computers and the creative process


5 Occupations
6 See also

6.1 Related disciplines
6.2 Related topics


7 Footnotes
8 Bibliography
9 External links

9.1 Graphic Design Professional Associations







//

History
Main article: History of graphic design




Page from the Book of Kells : Folio 114v, Decorated text. Tunc dicit illis


While Graphic Design as a discipline has a relatively recent history, graphic design-like activities span the history of humankind: from the caves of Lascaux , to Rome's Trajan's Column to the illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages, to the dazzling neons of Ginza . In both this lengthy history and in the relatively recent explosion of visual communication in the 20th and 21st centuries, there is sometimes a blurring distinction and over-lapping of advertising art, graphic design and fine art . After all, they share many of the same elements, theories, principles, practices and languages , and sometimes the same benefactor or client. In advertising art the ultimate objective is the sale of goods and services. In graphic design, "the essence is to give order to information, form to ideas, expression and feeling to artifacts that document human experience." [ 2 ]
The advent of printing
Main article: History of printing
During the Tang Dynasty (618–906) between the 4th and 7th century A.D. wood blocks were cut to print on textiles and later to reproduce Buddhist texts. A Buddhist scripture printed in 868 is the earliest known printed book. Beginning in the 11th century, longer scrolls and books were produced using movable type printing making books widely available during the Song dynasty (960–1279). [ 3 ] Sometime around 1450, Johann Gutenberg 's printing press made books widely available in Europe. The book design of Aldus Manutius developed the book structure which would become the foundation of western publication design. This era of graphic design is called Humanist or Old Style. [ 4 ]
Emergence of the design industry
In late 19th century Europe, especially in the United Kingdom, the movement began to separate graphic design from fine art. Piet Mondrian is known as the father of graphic design. He was a fine artist, but his use of grids inspired the modern grid system used today in advertising, print and web layout. [ 5 ]
In 1849, Henry Cole became one of the major forces in design education in Great Britain, informing the government of the importance of design in his Journal of Design and Manufactures . He organized the Great Exhibition as a celebration of modern industrial technology and Victorian design.
From 1891 to 1896 William Morris ' Kelmscott Press published books that are some of the most significant of the graphic design products of the Arts and Crafts movement , and made a very lucrative business of creating books of great stylistic refinement and selling them to the wealthy for a premium. Morris proved that a market existed for works of graphic design in their own right and helped pioneer the separation of design from production and from fine art. The work of the Kelmscott Press is characterized by its obsession with historical styles. This historicism was, however, important as it amounted to the first significant reaction to the stale state of nineteenth-century graphic design. Morris' work, along with the rest of the Private Press movement, directly influenced Art Nouveau and is indirectly responsible for developments in early twentieth century graphic design in general. [ 6 ]
Twentieth century design




A Boeing 747 aircraft with livery designating it as Air Force One . The cyan forms, the US flag , presidential seal and the Caslon lettering were all designed at different times and combined by designer Raymond Loewy in this one final design.


Who originally coined the term "graphic design" appears to be in dispute. It has been attributed to Richard Guyatt , the British designer and academic, but another source suggests William Addison Dwiggins , an American book designer in the early 20th century [ 7 ]
The signage in the London Underground is a classic design example [ 8 ] of the modern era and used a font designed by Edward Johnston in 1916.
In the 1920s, Soviet constructivism applied 'intellectual production' in different spheres of production. The movement saw individualistic art as useless in revolutionary Russia and thus moved towards creating objects for utilitarian purposes. They designed buildings, theater sets, posters, fabrics, clothing, furniture, logos, menus, etc. [ citation needed ]
Jan Tschichold codified the principles of modern typography in his 1928 book, New Typography . He later repudiated the philosophy he espoused in this book as being fascistic, but it remained very influential. [ citation needed ] Tschichold, Bauhaus typographers such as Herbert Bayer and Laszlo Moholy-Nagy , and El Lissitzky are the fathers of graphic design [ citation needed ] as we know it today. They pioneered production techniques and stylistic devices used throughout the twentieth century. The following years saw graphic design in the modern style gain widespread acceptance and application. [ 9 ] A booming post-World War II American economy established a greater need for graphic design, mainly advertising and packaging. The emigration of the German Bauhaus school of design to Chicago in 1937 brought a "mass-produced" minimalism to America; sparking a wild fire of "modern" architecture and design. Notable names in mid-century modern design include Adrian Frutiger , designer of the typefaces Univers and Frutiger ; Paul Rand , who, from the late 1930s until his death in 1996, took the principles of the Bauhaus and applied them to popular advertising and logo design, helping to create a uniquely American approach to European minimalism while becoming one of the principal pioneers of the subset of graphic design known as corporate identity ; and Josef Müller-Brockmann , who designed posters in a severe yet accessible manner typical of the 1950s and 1970s era.
Applications
From road signs to technical schematics, from interoffice memorandums to reference manuals , graphic design enhances transfer of knowledge . Readability is enhanced by improving the visual presentation of text.
Design can also aid in selling a product or idea through effective visual communication. It is applied to products and elements of company identity like logos , colors, packaging , and text. Together these are defined as branding (see also advertising ). Branding has increasingly become important in the range of services offered by many graphic designers, alongside corporate identity . Whilst the terms are often used interchangeably, branding is more strictly related to the identifying mark or trade name for a product or service, whereas corporate identity can have a broader meaning relating to the structure and ethos of a company, as well as to the company's external image. Graphic designers will often form part of a team working on corporate identity and branding projects. Other members of that team can include marketing professionals, communications consultants and commercial writers.
Textbooks are designed to present subjects such as geography, science, and math. These publications have layouts which illustrate theories and diagrams . A common example of graphics in use to educate is diagrams of human anatomy . Graphic design is also applied to layout and formatting of educational material to make the information more accessible and more readily understandable.
Graphic design is applied in the entertainment industry in decoration, scenery, and visual story telling. Other examples of design for entertainment purposes include novels, comic books, opening credits and closing credits in film, and programs and props on stage. This could also include artwork used for t-shirts and other items screenprinted for sale.
From scientific journals to news reporting, the presentation of opinion and facts is often improved with graphics and thoughtful compositions of visual information - known as information design . Newspapers, magazines, blogs, television and film documentaries may use graphic design to inform and entertain. With the advent of the web, information designers with experience in interactive tools such as Adobe Flash are increasingly being used to illustrate the background to news stories.
Skills
A graphic design project may involve the stylization and presentation of existing text and either preexisting imagery or images developed by the graphic designer. For example, a newspaper story begins with the journalists and photojournalists and then becomes the graphic designer's job to organize the page into a reasonable layout and determine if any other graphic elements should be required. In a magazine article or advertisement, often the graphic designer or art director will commission photographers or illustrators to create original pieces just to be incorporated into the design layout. Contemporary design practice has been extended to the modern computer, for example in the use of WYSIWYG user interfaces, often referred to as interactive design , or multimedia design.
Visual arts
Main article: Visual arts
Before any graphic elements may be applied to a design, the graphic elements must be originated by means of visual art skills. These graphics are often (but not always) developed by a graphic designer. Visual arts include works which are primarily visual in nature using anything from traditional media , to photography or computer generated art. Graphic design principles may be applied to each graphic art element individually as well as to the final composition.
Typography
Main article: Typography
Typography is the art, craft and techniques of type design, modifying type glyphs , and arranging type. Type glyphs (characters) are created and modified using a variety of illustration techniques. The arrangement of type is the selection of typefaces, point size, line length, leading (line spacing) and letter spacing.
Typography is performed by typesetters, compositors, typographers, graphic artists, art directors, and clerical workers. Until the Digital Age, typography was a specialized occupation. Digitization opened up typography to new generations of visual designers and lay users.
Page layout
Main article: Page layout
Page layout is the part of graphic design that deals in the arrangement and style treatment of elements (content) on a page. Beginning from early illuminated pages in hand-copied books of the Middle Ages and proceeding down to intricate modern magazine and catalog layouts, proper page design has long been a consideration in printed material. With print media, elements usually consist of type (text), images (pictures), and occasionally place-holder graphics for elements that are not printed with ink such as die / laser cutting , foil stamping or blind embossing .
Interface design
Main article: User interface design
Graphic designers are often involved in interface design, such as web design and software design when end user interactivity is a design consideration of the layout or interface. Combining visual communication skills with the interactive communication skills of user interaction and online branding, graphic designers often work with software developers and web developers to create both the look and feel of a web site or software application and enhance the interactive experience of the user or web site visitor. An important aspect of interface design is icon design .
Printmaking
Main article: Printmaking
Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing on paper and other materials or surfaces. Except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a print. Each piece is not a copy but an original since it is not a reproduction of another work of art and is technically known as an impression. Painting or drawing, on the other hand, create a unique original piece of artwork. Prints are created from a single original surface, known technically as a matrix. Common types of matrices include: plates of metal, usually copper or zinc for engraving or etching; stone, used for lithography; blocks of wood for woodcuts, linoleum for linocuts and fabric plates for screen-printing. But there are many other kinds, discussed below. Works printed from a single plate create an edition, in modern times usually each signed and numbered to form a limited edition. Prints may also be published in book form, as artist's books. A single print could be the product of one or multiple techniques.
Chromatics
Chromatics is the field of how eyes perceive color and how to explain and organize those colors in the printer and on the monitor. The Retina in the eye is covered by two light-sensitive receptors that are named rods and cones. Rods are sensitive to light, but not sensitive to color. Cones are the opposite of rods. They are less sensitive to light, but color can be perceived. [ 10 ]
Tools




Examples of graphic design made on a computer, setting out various possibilities for a Wikimedia Commons project icon.


The mind may be the most important graphic design tool. Aside from technology, graphic design requires judgment and creativity . Critical, observational, quantitative and analytic thinking are required for design layouts and rendering . If the executor is merely following a solution (e.g. sketch, script or instructions) provided by another designer (such as an art director ), then the executor is not usually considered the designer.
The method of presentation (e.g. arrangement, style, medium) may be equally important to the design. The layout is produced using external traditional or digital image editing tools. The appropriate development and presentation tools can substantially change how an audience perceives a project.
In the mid 1980s, the arrival of desktop publishing and graphic art software applications introduced a generation of designers to computer image manipulation and creation that had previously been manually executed. Computer graphic design enabled designers to instantly see the effects of layout or typographic changes, and to simulate the effects of traditional media without requiring a lot of space. However, traditional tools such as pencils or markers are useful even when computers are used for finalization; a designer or art director may hand sketch numerous concepts as part of the creative process . Some of these sketches may even be shown to a client for early stage approval, before the designer develops the idea further using a computer and graphic design software tools.
Computers are considered an indispensable tool in the graphic design industry. Computers and software applications are generally seen by creative professionals as more effective production tools than traditional methods. However, some designers continue to use manual and traditional tools for production, such as Milton Glaser .
New ideas can come by way of experimenting with tools and methods. Some designers explore ideas using pencil and paper to avoid creating within the limits of whatever computer fonts , clipart , stock photos , or rendering filters (e.g. Kai's Power Tools ) are available on any particular configuration. Others use many different mark-making tools and resources from computers to sticks and mud as a means of inspiring creativity. One of the key features of graphic design is that it makes a tool out of appropriate image selection in order to convey meaning. [ 11 ]
Computers and the creative process
There is some debate whether computers enhance the creative process of graphic design. [ 12 ] Rapid production from the computer allows many designers to explore multiple ideas quickly with more detail than what could be achieved by traditional hand-rendering or paste-up on paper, moving the designer through the creative process more quickly. [ 13 ] However, being faced with limitless choices does not help isolate the best design solution and can lead to endless iterations with no clear design outcome.
A graphic designer may use sketches to explore multiple or complex ideas quickly [ 14 ] without the distractions and complications of software. [ citation needed ] Hand-rendered comps are often used to get approval for an idea execution before a design invests time to produce finished visuals on a computer or in paste-up. The same thumbnail sketches or rough drafts on paper may be used to rapidly refine and produce the idea on the computer in a hybrid process. This hybrid process is especially useful in logo design [ 15 ] where a software learning curve may detract from a creative thought process. The traditional-design/computer-production hybrid process may be used for freeing one's creativity in page layout or image development as well. [ citation needed ] In the early days of computer publishing, many 'traditional' graphic designers relied on computer-savvy production artists to produce their ideas from sketches, without needing to learn the computer skills themselves. However, this practice has been increasingly less common since the advent of desktop publishing over 30 years ago. The use of computers and graphics software is now taught in most graphic design courses.
Occupations
Main article: Graphic design occupations
Graphic design career paths cover all ends of the creative spectrum and often overlap. The main job responsibility of a Graphic Designer is the arrangement of visual elements in some type of media. The main job titles include graphic designer , art director , creative director , and the entry level production artist . Depending on the industry served, the responsibilities may have different titles such as " DTP Associate " or " Graphic Artist ," but despite changes in title, graphic design principles remain consistent. The responsibilities may come from or lead to specialized skills such as illustration , photography or interactive design .
A graphic designer reports to the art director , creative director or senior media creative . As a designer becomes more senior, they may spend less time designing media and more time leading and directing other designers on broader creative activities, such as brand development and corporate identity development. As graphic designers become more senior, they are often expected to interact more directly with clients.
See also

videographer

videographer

Videography refers to the process of capturing moving images on electronic media (e.g., videotape , hard disk , or solid state storage , streaming media ). The term includes methods of electronic production and post production. It is the equivalent of cinematography , but with images recorded on electronic media instead of film stock .
The word combines "video" from Latin, meaning "I see" or "I apprehend", with the Greek terminal ending "graphy", meaning "to write". Its contemporary sense is rooted in an article titled "Videography: What Does It All Mean?" [1] ( American Cinematographer , October 1972).
The advent of digital imaging in the late 20th century began to blur the distinction between videography and cinematography.
The videography market has grown to include distribution as well as production. With this growth has come market segmentation, based on the application: event video, corporate video, broadcast video , etc.
The advent of the Internet has created a global environment where videography covers many more fields than just shooting video with a camera. [ citation needed ] Included under the videography umbrella are digital animation (such as Flash ), gaming , web streaming , video blogging , still slideshows , remote sensing, spatial imaging, medical imaging, and in general the production of most bitmap - and vector -based assets. As the field progresses videographers may produce their assets entirely on a computer without ever involving an imaging device, using software-driven solutions. Moreover, the very concept of sociality and privacy are being reformed by the proliferation of cell-phone video cameras, which are spreading at an exceptional rate in industrialized societies.
A videographer may be the person actually operating the camera or he or she may be the person in charge of the visual design of a production (the latter being the equivalent of a cinematographer).
Videography also refers to the compiling of an artist's music videos or video releases (compare with " filmography " or " discography ").

logo

logo

A logo is a graphic mark or emblem commonly used by commercial enterprises, organizations and even individuals to aid and promote instant public recognition. Logos are either purely graphic (symbols/icons) or are composed of the name of the organization (a logotype or wordmark ). An example of an abstract mark is the blue octagon representing Chase Bank , while an example of a representational mark is the "everyman" icon of PBS . Examples of well-known logotypes (wordmarks) are the striped IBM design, Mobil written in blue with a red "o" and CocaCola written in flowing red script.
In the days of hot metal typesetting , a logotype was a uniquely set and arranged typeface or colophon . At the level of mass communication or simply in the high street a company's logo is today often synonymous with its trademark or brand . [ 1 ]




Contents


1 History
2 Logos today
3 Logo design
4 Logo designers

4.1 Dynamic logos


5 Examples

5.1 Corporations, businesses and products
5.2 Sports

5.2.1 Baseball


5.3 Logos in subvertising


6 See also
7 References
8 External links





//

History




Early trademark of the Chiswick Press


Numerous inventions and techniques have contributed to the contemporary logo, including cylinder seals (c.2300 BCE), coins (c.600 BCE), [ 2 ] [ 3 ] trans-cultural diffusion of logographic languages, coats of arms , [ 4 ] watermarks , [ 5 ] silver hallmarks and the development of printing technology .
As the industrial revolution converted western societies from agrarian to industrial in the 18th and 19th centuries, photography, and lithography contributed to the boom of an advertising industry that integrated typography and imagery together on the page. [ 6 ] Simultaneously, typography itself was undergoing a revolution of form and expression that expanded beyond the modest, serif typefaces used in books, to bold, ornamental typefaces used on broadsheet posters . [ 7 ]
The arts were expanding in purpose—from expression and decoration of an artistic, storytelling nature, to a differentiation of brands and products that the growing middle classes were consuming. Consultancies and trades-groups in the commercial arts were growing and organizing; by 1890 the US had 700 lithographic printing firms employing more than 8,000 people. [ 8 ] Artistic credit tended to be assigned to the lithographic company, as opposed to the individual artists.




A coin from early 6th century BC Lydia bearing the head of a roaring lion with sun rays


Innovators in the visual arts and lithographic process—such as French printing firm Rouchon in the 1840s, Joseph Morse of New York in the 1850s, Frederick Walker of England in the 1870s, and Jules Chéret of France in the 1870s—developed an illustrative style that went beyond tonal, representational art to figurative imagery with sections of bright, flat colors. [ 8 ] Playful children’s books, authoritative newspapers, and conversational periodicals developed their own visual and editorial styles for unique, expanding audiences. As printing costs decreased, literacy rates increased, and visual styles changed, the Victorian decorative arts lead to an expansion of typographic styles and methods of representing businesses. [ 9 ]
The Arts and Crafts Movement of late-19th century, partially in response to the excesses of Victorian typography, aimed to restore an honest sense of craftsmanship to the mass-produced goods of the era. [ 10 ] A renewal of interest in craftsmanship and quality also provided the artists and companies with a greater interest in credit, leading to the creation of unique logos and marks.
By the 1950s, Modernism had shed its roots as an avant-garde artistic movement in Europe to become an international, commercialized movement with adherents in the United States and elsewhere. The visual simplicity and conceptual clarity that were the hallmarks of Modernism as an artistic movement formed a powerful toolset for a new generation of graphic designers whose logos embodied Ludwig Mies van der Rohe ’s dictum, “Less is more.” Modernist-inspired logos proved successful in the era of mass visual communication ushered in by television, improvements in printing technology, and digital innovations.
Logos today




Ancient in origin but today instantly recognisable: the logos of the Red Cross and the Red Crescent


The current era of logo design began in the 1950s. A paradigmatic contemporary logo is the Chase Bank logo, designed in 1960 by Chermayeff & Geismar , considered pioneers of Modernist graphic design in the United States. The Chase logo was “the first truly abstract logo” [ 11 ] of the contemporary era. As would happen with many subsequent corporate logos, mass media advertising was used to link the logo with the bank in the public mind, while its simple, distinctive form, free of specific cultural or other connotations, was well suited to represent a complex, multinational corporation. [ 12 ]
Today there are many corporations, products, brands, services, agencies and other entities using an ideogram (sign, icon) or an emblem (symbol) or a combination of sign and emblem as a logo. As a result, only a few of the thousands of ideograms people see are recognized without a name. It is sensible to use an ideogram as a logo, even with the name, if people will not duly identify it. Currently, the usage of both images (ideograms) and the company name (logotype) to emphasize the name instead of the supporting graphic portion and making it unique, by it non-formulaic construction via the desiginal use of its letters, colors and any additional graphic elements.
Ideograms (icons, signs, emblems) may be more effective than a written name (logotype), especially for logos being translated into many alphabets ; for instance, a name in the Arabic language would be of little help in most European markets. An ideogram would keep the general proprietary nature of the product in both markets. In non-profit areas, the Red Cross (which goes by Red Crescent in Muslim countries) is an example of an extremely well known emblem which does not need an accompanying name. Branding aims to facilitate cross-language marketing. The Coca-Cola logo can be identified in any language because of the standard color and the well known "ribbon wave" design.
Some countries have logos, e.g. Spain , Italy , Turkey and The Islands of The Bahamas , that identify them in marketing their country solely for tourism purposes. Such logos often are used by countries whose tourism sector makes up a large portion of their economy.
Logo design




Logo for a fictitious company: note narrow color range and simple design


Logo design is an important area of graphic design , and one of the most difficult to perfect. The logo (ideogram), is the image embodying an organization. Because logos are meant to represent companies' brands or corporate identities and foster their immediate customer recognition, it is counterproductive to frequently redesign logos.
Color is considered important to brand recognition, but it should not be an integral component to the logo design, which could conflict with its functionality. Some colors are formed/associated with certain emotions that the designer wants to convey. For instance loud primary colors, such as red, are meant to attract the attention of drivers on highways are appropriate for companies that require such attention. In the United States red, white, and blue are often used in logos for companies that want to project patriotic feelings. Green is often associated with the health and hygiene sector, and light blue or silver is often used to reflect diet foods. For other brands, more subdued tones and lower saturation can communicate reliability, quality, relaxation, or other traits.
Logo designers
The logo design profession has substantially increased in numbers over the years since the rise of the Modernist movement in the United States in the 1950s. [ 13 ] Three designers are widely [ 14 ] considered the pioneers of that movement and of logo and corporate identity design: The first is Chermayeff & Geismar [ 15 ] , which is the firm responsible for a large number of iconic logos, such as Chase Bank (1964), Mobil Oil (1965), NBC (1984), PBS (1986), National Geographic (2003) and others. Due to the simplicity and boldness of their designs, many of their earlier logos are still in use today. The firm recently designed logos for the Library of Congress and the fashion brand Armani Exchange . Another pioneer of corporate identity design is Paul Rand [ 16 ] , who was one of the originators of the Swiss Style of graphic design. He designed many posters and corporate identities, including the logos for IBM , UPS , and ABC . Rand died in 1996. The third pioneer of corporate identity design is Saul Bass [ 17 ] . Bass was responsible for several recognizable logos in North America, including both the Bell Telephone logo (1969) and successor AT&T globe (1983). Other well-known designs were Continental Airlines (1968), Dixie (1969), and United Way (1972). Later, he would produce logos for a number of Japanese companies as well. He died in 1996.
Dynamic logos



This section requires expansion .






More recent version of the first dynamic logo


In 1898 the French tyre manufacturer Michelin introduced the Michelin Man , a cartoon figure presented in many different contexts, such as eating, drinking and playing sports.
By the early 21st century, large corporations such as MTV , Google , Morton Salt and Saks Fifth Avenue had adopted dynamic logos that change over time from setting to setting. [ 18 ]
Examples
Corporations, businesses and products



Due to the design, the color, the shape, and eventually additional elements of the logotype, each one can easily be differentiated from other logotypes. For example, a box of Kellogg's cereals will be easily recognized in a supermarket's shelf from a certain distance, due to its unique typography and distinctive red coloring. The same will be true when one is at the airport looking for the booth of the Hertz Rent-A-Car company. The logotype will be recognized from afar because of its shape and its yellow color. In other instances, aesthetic choices result in logos that coincidentally resemble each other. [ 19 ]




The color, letter font and style of the Coca-Cola and Diet Coca-Cola logos in English were copied into matching Hebrew logos to maintain brand identity in Israel.


Some well-known logos include Apple Inc. 's apple with a bite missing, which started out as a rainbow of color, and has been reduced to a single color without any loss of recognition. Coca Cola 's script is known worldwide, but is best associated with the color red; its main competitor, Pepsi has taken the color blue, although they have abandoned their script logo. IBM , also known as "Big Blue" has simplified their logo over the years, and their name. What started as International Business Machines is now just "IBM" and the color blue has been a signature in their unifying campaign as they have moved to become an IT services company.
There are some other logos that must be mentioned when evaluating what the mark means to the consumer. Automotive brands can be summed up simply with their corporate logo- from the Chevrolet "Bow Tie" mark to the circle marks of Volkswagen , Mercedes-Benz and BMW , to the interlocking "RR" of Rolls-Royce each has stood for a brand, and clearly differentiated the product line.
Other logos that are recognized globally: the Nike " Swoosh " and the Adidas "Three stripes" are two well-known brands that are defined by their corporate logo. When Phil Knight started Nike, he was hoping to find a mark as recognizable as the Adidas stripes, which also provided reinforcement to the shoe. He hired a young student ( Carolyn Davidson ) to design his logo, paying her $35 for what has become one of the best known marks in the world (she was later compensated again by the company). [ 20 ]
Another logo of global renown is that of Playboy Enterprises . Playboy magazine claims it once received a letter at its Chicago, Illinois offices with its distinctive "bunny" logo as the only identifying mark, appearing where the mailing address normally appears.
Corporate identities are often developed by large firms who specialize in this type of work. However, Paul Rand is considered the father of corporate identity and his work has been seminal in launching this field. Some famous examples of his work were the UPS package with a string (replaced in March 2003) IBM, and NeXT Computer .
An interesting case is the refinement of the FedEx logo, where the brand consultants convinced the company to shorten their corporate name and logo from "Federal Express" to the popular abbreviation "Fed Ex". Besides creating a shorter brand name, they reduced the amount of color used on vehicles (planes, trucks) and saved hundreds of thousands of dollars in paint costs. Also, the right-pointing arrow in the new logo hints at motion.
Starting about 4 years ago, certain companies, especially online technology companies, began to adopt a common look and feel. Many people refer to that standard as "web 2.0", but there is no official "web 2.0" standard. Web 2.0 logos often use small chunks of large type, with bright and cheery colors. Although there are literally hundreds of fonts used by web 2.0 companies, the logos are generally dominated by soft, rounded san serif fonts such as VAG Rounded ( Crowdspring ) and Helvetica Rounded ( Skype ). There are, however, numerous exceptions, as some web 2.0 companies have used classic fonts (Trade, News Gothic, Frutinger, Helvetica), while others have chosen to differentiate completely, using fonts like Klavika ( Facebook ).

photo

photo

A photograph (often shortened to photo ) is an image created by light falling on a light-sensitive surface, usually photographic film or an electronic imager such as a CCD or a CMOS chip. Most photographs are created using a camera , which uses a lens to focus the scene's visible wavelengths of light into a reproduction of what the human eye would see. The process and practice of creating photographs is called photography . The word "photograph" was coined in 1839 by Sir John Herschel and is based on the Greek φῶς ( phos ) "light" and γραφή ( graphê ) "representation by means of lines" or "drawing", together meaning "drawing with light". [ 1 ]




Contents


1 History
2 Types of photographs
3 Preservation

3.1 Paper folders
3.2 Polyester enclosures
3.3 Handling and care
3.4 Cultural misconceptions


4 Myths and beliefs
5 Legal issues
6 See also
7 References





//

History
Main article: History of photography
The first permanent photograph was made in 1822 [ 2 ] by a French inventor, Joseph Nicéphore Niépce , building on a discovery by Johann Heinrich Schultz (1724): that a silver and chalk mixture darkens under exposure to light. Niépce and Louis Daguerre refined this process. Daguerre discovered that exposing the silver first to iodine vapor, before exposure to light, and then to mercury fumes after the photograph was taken, could form a latent image; bathing the plate in a salt bath then fixes the image. These ideas led to the famous daguerreotype .
The daguerreotype had its problems, notably the fragility of the resulting picture, and that it was a positive-only process and thus could not be re-printed. Inventors set about looking for improved processes that would be more practical. Several processes were introduced and used for a short time between Niépce's first image and the introduction of the collodion process in 1848. Collodion-based wet-glass plate negatives with prints made on albumen paper remained the preferred photographic method for some time, even after the introduction of the even more practical gelatin process in 1871. Adaptations of the gelatin process have remained the primary black-and-white photographic process to this day, differing primarily in the film material itself, originally glass and then a variety of flexible films .
Color photography is almost as old as black-and-white, with early experiments dating to John Herschel 's experiments with Anthotype from 1842, and Lippmann plate from 1891. Color photography became much more popular with the introduction of Autochrome Lumière in 1903, which was replaced by Kodachrome , Ilfochrome and similar processes. For many years these processes were used almost exclusively for transparencies (in slide projectors and similar devices), but color prints became popular with the introduction of the Chromogenic negative, which is the most-used system in the C-41 process . The needs of the movie industry have also introduced a host of special-purpose systems, perhaps the best-known being the now rare Technicolor .
Types of photographs
Non-digital photographs are produced with a two-step chemical process. In the two-step process the light-sensitive film captures a negative image (colors and lights/darks are inverted). To produce a positive image, the negative is most commonly transferred (' printed ') onto photographic paper . Printing the negative onto transparent film stock is used to manufacture motion picture films.
Alternatively, the film is processed to invert the negative image, yielding positive transparencies . Such positive images are usually mounted in frames, called slides. Before recent advances in digital photography, transparencies were widely used by professionals because of their sharpness and accuracy of color rendition. Most photographs published in magazines were taken on color transparency film.
Originally all photographs were monochromatic, or hand-painted in color. Although methods for developing color photos were available as early as 1861, they did not become widely available until the 1940s or 50s, and even so, until the 1960s most photographs were taken in black and white. Since then, Color photography has dominated popular photography, although black and white is still used, being easier to develop than color.
Panoramic format images can be taken with cameras like the Hasselblad Xpan on standard film. Since the 1990s, panoramic photos have been available on the Advanced Photo System film. APS was developed by several of the major film manufacturers to provide a film with different formats and computerized options available, though APS panoramas were created using a mask in panorama-capable cameras, far less desirable than a true panoramic camera which achieves its effect through wider film format. APS has become less popular and is being discontinued.
The advent of the microcomputer and digital photography has led to the rise of digital prints . These prints are created from stored graphic formats such as JPEG , TIFF , and RAW . The types of printers used include inkjet printers , dye-sublimation printer , laser printers , and thermal printers . Inkjet prints are sometimes given the coined name " Giclée ".
Preservation
Paper folders
Ideal photograph storage involves placing each photo in an individual folder constructed from buffered, or acid-free paper . [ 3 ] Buffered paper folders are especially recommended in cases when a photograph was previously mounted onto poor quality material or using an adhesive that will lead to even more acid creation. [ 4 ] Store photographs measuring 8x10 inches or smaller vertically along the longer edge of the photo in the buffered paper folder, within a larger archival box, and label each folder with relevant information in order to identify it. The rigid nature of the folder protects the photo from slumping or creasing, as long as the box is not packed too tightly or under filled. Folder larger photos or brittle photos stacked flat within archival boxes with other materials of comparable size. [ 5 ]
Polyester enclosures
The most stable of plastics used in photo preservation, polyester , does not generate any harmful chemical elements, but nor does it have any capability to absorb acids generated by the photograph itself. Polyester sleeves and encapsulation have been praised for their ability to protect the photograph from humidity and environmental pollution , slowing the reaction between the item and the atmosphere. This is true, however the polyester just as frequently traps these elements next to the material it is intended to protect. This is especially risky in a storage environment that experiences drastic fluctuations in humidity or temperature, leading to ferrotyping, or sticking of the photograph to the plastic. [ 6 ] Photographs sleeved or encapsulated in polyester cannot be stored vertically in boxes because they will slide down next to each other within the box, bending and folding, nor can the archivist write directly onto the polyester to identify the photograph. Therefore, it is necessary to either stack polyester protected photographs horizontally within a box, or bind them in a three ring binder. Stacking the photos horizontally within a flat box will greatly reduce ease of access, and binders leave three sides of the photo exposed to the effects of light [ 7 ] and do not support the photograph evenly on both sides, leading to slumping and bending within the binder. The plastic used for enclosures has been manufactured to be as frictionless as possible in order to prevent abrading and scratching the photos during insertion to the sleeves. Unfortunately, the slippery nature of the enclosure generates a build-up of static electricity , which attracts dust and lint particles. The static can attract the dust to the inside of the sleeve, as well, where it can scratch the photograph. [ 8 ] Likewise, these components that aid in insertion of the photo, referred to as slip agents, can break down and transfer from the plastic to the photograph, where they deposit as an oily film, attracting further lint and dust. At this time, there is no test to evaluate the long-term effects of these components on photographs. In addition, the plastic sleeves can develop kinks or creases in the surface, which will scratch away at the emulsion during handling. [ 9 ]
Handling and care
It is best to leave photographs lying flat on the table when viewing them. Do not pick it up from a corner, or even from two sides and hold it at eye level. Every time the photograph bends, even a little, this can break down the emulsion . [ 10 ] The very nature of enclosing a photograph in plastic encourages users to pick it up; users tend to handle plastic enclosed photographs less gently than non-enclosed photographs, simply because they feel the plastic enclosure makes the photo impervious to all mishandling. As long as a photo is in its folder, there is no need to touch it; simply remove the folder from the box, lay it flat on the table, and open the folder. If for some reason the researcher or archivist does need to handle the actual photo, perhaps to examine the verso for writing, he or she can use gloves if there appears to be a risk from oils or dirt on the hands.
Cultural misconceptions
Susan Sontag [ 11 ] suggested that while painting can only ever be a "narrowly selective interpretation", a photograph can be treated as a "narrowly selective transparency". [ 12 ] A painting is dependent on a number of subjective variables such as personal ability, subject selection and personal interpretative techniques. Although photography encompasses fewer of these variables, it is not exempt from subjectivity.
The sheer quantity of concepts and principles and photography techniques demonstrates how a photograph can provide alternate meanings. Sontag suggested that even when photographers are concerned only with mirroring reality, they are still preoccupied with taste and conscience. [ 13 ] As seen in the Farm Security Administration of the 1930s, deciding which exposure should be selected, which should not, is imposing a set of standards on the subject.
Peter Doyle [ 14 ] elaborates that photography now attracts a learned suspicion. The adage "a photo never lies" is increasingly tested as digital photography becomes the photographic standard, including its inherent ease of manipulation .
Myths and beliefs
Since daguerreotypes were rendered on a mirrored surface, many spiritualists also became practitioners of the new art form. Spiritualists would claim that the human image on the mirrored surface was akin to looking into one's soul. The spiritualists also believed that it would open their souls and let demons in. Aborigines believed that taking one's picture took part of one's soul away. [ citation needed ]
Legal issues
Laws on child pornography , extreme pornography , etc. often restrict photographs and films even more than the depicted acts: photographs and films of legal acts may be illegal.
See also



Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Photographs





Look up photograph in Wiktionary , the free dictionary.



Archival science
Digital photography
Largest photographs in the world
Photo slideshow
Photograph stability
Photographic printing
Pseudo-photograph
View from the Window at Le Gras

Videography

Videography

Videography refers to the process of capturing moving images on electronic media (e.g., videotape , hard disk , or solid state storage , streaming media ). The term includes methods of electronic production and post production. It is the equivalent of cinematography , but with images recorded on electronic media instead of film stock .
The word combines "video" from Latin, meaning "I see" or "I apprehend", with the Greek terminal ending "graphy", meaning "to write". Its contemporary sense is rooted in an article titled "Videography: What Does It All Mean?" ( American Cinematographer , October 1972).
The advent of digital imaging in the late 20th century began to blur the distinction between videography and cinematography.
The videography market has grown to include distribution as well as production. With this growth has come market segmentation, based on the application: event video, corporate video, broadcast video , etc.
The advent of the Internet has created a global environment where videography covers many more fields than just shooting video with a camera. [ citation needed ] Included under the videography umbrella are digital animation (such as Flash ), gaming , web streaming , video blogging , still slideshows , remote sensing, spatial imaging, medical imaging, and in general the production of most bitmap - and vector -based assets. As the field progresses videographers may produce their assets entirely on a computer without ever involving an imaging device, using software-driven solutions. Moreover, the very concept of sociality and privacy are being reformed by the proliferation of cell-phone video cameras, which are spreading at an exceptional rate in industrialized societies.
A videographer may be the person actually operating the camera or he or she may be the person in charge of the visual design of a production (the latter being the equivalent of a cinematographer).
Videography also refers to the compiling of an artist's music videos or video releases (compare with " filmography " or " discography ").
See also



Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Videography



Video production
Wedding videography
Event videography
Institute of Videography
Underwater videography

convention video

convention video

seminar video

seminar video

Seminar is, generally, a form of academic instruction, either at an academic institution or offered by a commercial or professional organization. It has the function of bringing together small groups for recurring meetings, focusing each time on some particular subject, in which everyone present is requested to actively participate. This is often accomplished through an ongoing Socratic dialogue with a seminar leader or instructor, or through a more formal presentation of research. Normally, participants must not be beginners in the field under discussion (at US universities, seminar classes are generally reserved for upper-class students, although at UK and Australian universities seminars are often used for all years). The idea behind the seminar system is to familiarize students more extensively with the methodology of their chosen subject and also to allow them to interact with examples of the practical problems that always occur during research work. It is essentially a place where assigned readings are discussed, questions can be raised and debates can be conducted. It is relatively informal, at least compared to the lecture system of academic instruction.
In some European universities, a seminar may be a large lecture course, especially when conducted by a renowned thinker (regardless of the size of the audience or the scope of student participation in discussion). Some non-English speaking countries in Europe use the word seminar (e.g., German Seminar , Slovenian seminar , Polish seminarium , etc.) to refer to a university class that includes a term paper or project, as opposed to a lecture class (i.e., German Vorlesung , Slovenian predavanje , Polish wykład , etc.). This does not correspond to English use of the term.
Increasingly, the term "seminar" is used to describe a commercial event (though sometimes free to attend) where delegates are given information and instruction in a subject such as property investing, other types of investing, Internet marketing, self-improvement or a wide range of topics, by experts in that field.

conference video

conference video

CD duplication

CD duplication

Optical disc authoring , including DVD and Blu-ray Disc authoring (often referred to colloquially as burning ), is the process of assembling source material—video, audio or other data—into the proper logical volume format to then be recorded ("burned") onto an optical disc (typically a compact disc or DVD ).




Contents


1 Process
2 Sessions

2.1 TOC
2.2 Lead-In
2.3 Lead-Out
2.4 Tracks


3 Hardware
4 Software
5 File systems

5.1 ISO 9660
5.2 Universal Disk Format


6 Blu-ray Disc
7 HighMAT
8 See also
9 External links





//

Process
To burn an optical disc, one usually first creates an optical disc image with a full file system designed for the optical disc, and then burns the image to the disc. The disc image is a single file, built and stored on the hard drive, which contains the entire information to be contained on the disc.
Many optical disc authoring software applications create the disc image and burn in one bundled operation, so that end-users often do not know the distinction. However, a useful motivation for learning this distinction is that creating the disc image is an "expensive" (time-consuming) process. Most disc writing applications will silently delete this image from the " temporary directory " in which it was built unless users instruct the disc burning application to preserve the image, which can then be used for creating further copies of the same image without the need to rebuild the image each time.
There are also packet-writing applications that do not require writing the entire disc at once, but allow writing parts at a time, allowing the disc to be used in the same way as rewritable media such as a floppy disk .
There exist many optical disc authoring technologies for optimizing the authoring process and preventing errors. Discs writeable only once whose burn failed are colloquially termed coasters .
Some operating systems are aware of disc images as a filesystem type, and can mount these images so that they appear as actual mounted discs. This feature can be useful for testing a disc image after authoring but before writing to the disc media.
Sessions
Data on a Red Book audio compact disc is laid out in sessions . Each session consists of a lead-in , containing the session's Table of Contents ; the program area in which the individual tracks are located; and the lead-out .
The number of tracks is limited to 99 in a session. The specifications require at least one track in each session. The tracks are located in the program area of the session.
In multisession discs, the lead-in areas contain addresses of the previous sessions. The TOC written in the lead-in of the latest session is used to access the tracks.
TOC
The Table of Contents ( TOC ) is the area where the layout of the tracks on the disc is described. It is located in the lead-in area of the disc session. The TOC on discs is in principle similar to partition table on hard drives .
Nonstandard or corrupted TOC records are abused as a form of CD/DVD copy protection , in e.g. the key2Audio scheme.
Lead-In
The lead-in area of a CD session is the starting part of the session. It contains the TOC for the session, and the address of the next available free part of the disc available for the start of the next session, unless the disc is closed and therefore no more sessions can be added, or the disc is not multisession.
Lead-Out
The lead-out area is the ending part of the CD session. When the session is closed, the lead-out area is written.
The first lead-out is 6750 sectors (about 13 megabytes) long, each subsequent lead-out is 2250 sectors (4 megabytes) long.
Tracks
Main article: Track (CD)
A track is a consecutive set of sectors on the disc containing a block of data. One session may contain one or more tracks of the same or different types. There are several kinds of tracks: Audio tracks, Data tracks.
Hardware
Main article: Optical disc recorder
Authoring is commonly done in software on computers with optical disc recorders . There are, however, stand-alone devices like personal video recorders which can also author and record discs.
Software
Main article: Optical disc authoring software
Use of optical disc recorders require optical disc authoring software , sometimes called "burning applications" or "burner applications". Such software is usually sold with the recorder. Some operating systems come bundled with them.
File systems





Please help improve this article by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page . (January 2007)


Optical disk file systems include ISO 9660 (often known simply as "ISO") and Universal Disk Format (UDF). ISO is most common for CDs and UDF is most common for DVDs.
ISO 9660
Main article: ISO 9660
ISO 9660 is a format mainly used on CDs. The ISO 9660 can be extended with Joliet , Rock Ridge , Amiga Extensions to Rock Ridge , El Torito , or the Apple ISO 9660 Extensions . The Joliet file system was made by Microsoft. It makes it possible to have long file names , among other things. Rock Ridge is a system providing ownership, fewer restrictions on the file names, and more. Amiga extensions allow use of Amiga attribute bits and comments. El Torito makes it possible to boot from a CD. The Apple Extensions enables creator codes, file type, and so on.
Universal Disk Format
Main article: Universal Disk Format
Universal Disk Format (UDF) can be extended with Mount Rainier making it possible to use the disc like a floppy disk . This allows to easily delete, create, and modify files, without having to write the whole disc again.
Blu-ray Disc





This article may need to be updated . Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information, and remove this template when finished. Please see the talk page for more information.


As of April 2008 when authoring Blu-ray Disc special attention should be given to ensure that following elements are compatible with each other, even for the simplest file structures.

the used Blu-ray Disc codecs
optical disc authoring software for Blu-ray Disc (included in some DVD authoring software )
intended playing device which can be either

the Sony PlayStation 3 ,
a Blu-ray Disc standalone player or
a computer that must have compatible Blu-ray Disc player software that is sometimes included in DVD player software . The GPU of the computer i.e. ATI versus NVIDIA must be compatible with the player software. (Some software does not support ATI and some software does not or hardly supports some codecs in combination with NVIDIA.)


Blu-ray Disc recordable

As of April 2008, Blu-ray Disc authoring software for consumers does not support BD-J and some authoring software packages do not support High Definition Movie (abbreviated as HDMV i.e. menus, comparable with DVD menus).
HighMAT
There is a compatibility technology called HighMAT that allows visual material on the disc to be recognised, interpreted and supported by electronic play devices.
See also

List of optical disc authoring software

Its also reads dual layer disc

audio recording

audio recording

Sound recording and reproduction is an electrical or mechanical inscription and re-creation of sound waves, such as spoken voice , singing, instrumental music , or sound effects. The two main classes of sound recording technology are analog recording and digital recording . Acoustic analog recording is achieved by a small microphone diaphragm that can detect changes in atmospheric pressure ( acoustic sound waves) and record them as a graphic representation of the sound waves on a medium such as a phonograph (in which a stylus senses grooves on a record). In magnetic tape recording, the sound waves vibrate the microphone diaphragm and are converted into a varying electric current , which is then converted to a varying magnetic field by an electromagnet , which makes a representation of the sound as magnetized areas on a plastic tape with a magnetic coating on it. Analog sound reproduction is the reverse process, with a bigger loudspeaker diaphragm causing changes to atmospheric pressure to form acoustic sound waves. Electronically generated sound waves may also be recorded directly from devices such as an electric guitar pickup or a synthesizer , without the use of acoustics in the recording process other than the need for musicians to hear how well they are playing during recording sessions .
Digital recording and reproduction converts the analog sound signal picked up by the microphone to a digital form by a process of digitization , allowing it to be stored and transmitted by a wider variety of media. Digital recording stores audio as a series of binary numbers representing samples of the amplitude of the audio signal at equal time intervals, at a sample rate so fast that the human ear perceives the result as continuous sound. Digital recordings are considered higher quality than analog recordings not necessarily because they have higher fidelity (wider frequency response or dynamic range ), but because the digital format can prevent much loss of quality found in analog recording due to noise and electromagnetic interference in playback, and mechanical deterioration or damage to the storage medium . A digital audio signal must be reconverted to analog form during playback before it is applied to a loudspeaker or earphones.




Contents


1 History

1.1 Origins


2 Phonograph

2.1 Phonograph cylinder
2.2 Disc phonograph


3 Electrical recording
4 Other recording formats
5 Magnetic tape
6 Stereo and hi-fi
7 1950s and beyond
8 Digital recording
9 Digital recording and processing software
10 Voice to note
11 Legal status

11.1 UK


12 Notes
13 Further reading
14 Media
15 External links





//

History
Main article: History of sound recording
Origins









435 HZ





This 1859 phonautogram by Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville is the earliest known modern sound recording.




Problems listening to this file? See media help .











Au Clair de la Lune





This 1860 phonautogram by Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville is the first known sound recording with a human voice.




Problems listening to this file? See media help .



The automatic reproduction of music can be traced back as far as the 9th century, when the Banū Mūsā brothers invented "the earliest known mechanical musical instrument ", in this case a hydropowered organ which played interchangeable cylinders automatically. According to Charles B. Fowler, this "cylinder with raised pins on the surface remained the basic device to produce and reproduce music mechanically until the second half of the nineteenth century." [ 1 ] The Banu Musa also invented an automatic flute player which appears to have been the first programmable machine . [ 2 ]
In the 14th century, Flanders introduced a mechanical bell-ringer controlled by a rotating cylinder. Similar designs appeared in barrel organs (15th century), musical clocks (1598), barrel pianos (1805), and musical boxes (1815).
All of these machines could play stored music, but they could not play arbitrary sounds, could not record a live performance, and were limited by the physical size of the medium. The first device that could record sound mechanically (but could not play it back) was the phonautograph , developed in 1857 by Parisian inventor Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville . The earliest known recordings of the human voice were phonautograms also made in 1857. These earliest known recordings include a dramatic reading in French of Shakespeare's Othello and music played on a guitar and trumpet. The recordings consist of groups of wavy lines scratched by a stylus onto fragile paper that was blackened by the soot from an oil lamp [ 3 ] . One of his phonautograms of Au Clair de la Lune , a French folk song, was digitally converted to sound in 2008. [ 3 ] . While this is an interesting playback that sounds like a girl singing, the creator of this recording, Patrick Feaster of Indiana University in Bloomington, reports that phonautograms his team had previously transcribed, using a laser as a virtual stylus, had been played back at twice the actual speed. What sounded like a girl singing the French folksong was actually Léon Scott singing, Feaster concluded in May, 2009. Since the above recording was recovered, the same team have since recovered a recording of a 435-Hz tuning fork (at that time the French standard concert pitch for A' — now 440 Hz). The tuning fork is barely audible.
The player piano , first demonstrated in 1876, used a punched paper scroll that could store an arbitrarily long piece of music. This piano roll moved over a device known as the 'tracker bar', which first had 58 holes, was expanded to 65 and then was upgraded to 88 holes (generally, one for each piano key). When a perforation passed over the hole, the note sounded. Piano rolls were the first stored music medium that could be mass-produced, although the hardware to play them was much too expensive for personal use. Technology to record a live performance onto a piano roll was not developed until 1904. Piano rolls have been in continuous mass production since around 1898. [ citation needed ] A 1908 U.S. Supreme Court copyright case noted that, in 1902 alone, there were between 70,000 and 75,000 player pianos manufactured, and between 1,000,000 and 1,500,000 piano rolls produced. [ 4 ] The use of piano rolls began to decline in the 1920s although one type is still being made today. The fairground organ , developed in 1892, used a similar system of accordion-folded punched cardboard books.
Phonograph
Main article: Phonograph
Phonograph cylinder




Frances Densmore recording Blackfoot chief Mountain Chief on a cylinder phonograph for the Bureau of American Ethnology (1916)











"Kham Hom" ("Sweet Words")





Phonograph cylinder recording of Siamese (Thai) musicians visiting Berlin , Germany in 1900.




Problems listening to this file? See media help .


The first practical sound recording and reproduction device was the mechanical phonograph cylinder , invented by Thomas Edison in 1877 and patented in 1878. [ 5 ] The invention soon spread across the globe and over the next two decades the commercial recording, distribution and sale of sound recordings became a growing new international industry, with the most popular titles selling millions of units by the early 1900s. The development of mass-production techniques enabled cylinder recordings to become a major new consumer item in industrial countries and the cylinder was the main consumer format from the late 1880s until around 1910.
Disc phonograph
The next major technical development was the invention of the gramophone disc , generally credited to Emile Berliner and commercially introduced in the United States in 1889. Discs were easier to manufacture, transport and store, and they had the additional benefit of being louder (marginally) than cylinders, which by necessity, were single-sided. Sales of the Gramophone record overtook the cylinder ca. 1910, and by the end of World War I the disc had become the dominant commercial recording format. Edison, who was the main producer of cylinders, created the Edison Disc Record in an attempt to regain his market. In various permutations, the audio disc format became the primary medium for consumer sound recordings until the end of the 20th century, and the double-sided 78 rpm shellac disc was the standard consumer music format from the early 1910s to the late 1950s.
Although there was no universally accepted speed, and various companies offered discs that played at several different speeds, the major recording companies eventually settled on a de facto industry standard of nominally 78 revolutions per minute, though the actual speed differed between America and the rest of the world. The specified speed was 78.26 rpm in America and 77.92 rpm throughout the rest of the world, the difference in speeds a result of the difference in cycle frequencies of the AC power driving the synchronous motor ) and available gearing ratios. [ 6 ] The nominal speed of the disc format gave rise to its common nickname, the "seventy-eight" (though not until other speeds had become available). Discs were made of shellac or similar brittle plastic-like materials, played with needles made from a variety of materials including mild steel, thorn and even sapphire. Discs had a distinctly limited playing life which was heavily dependent on how they were reproduced.
The earlier, purely acoustic methods of recording had limited sensitivity and frequency range. Mid-frequency range notes could be recorded but very low and very high frequencies could not. Instruments such as the violin transferred poorly to disc; however this was partially solved by retrofitting a conical horn to the sound box of the violin. The horn was no longer required once electrical recording was developed.
The Vinyl microgroove was invented by a Hungarian engineer Peter Carl Goldmark . The vinyl microgroove record was introduced in the late 1940s, and the two main vinyl formats — the 7-inch single turning at 45 rpm and the 12-inch LP (long-playing) record turning at 33 1/3 rpm — had totally replaced the 78 rpm shellac (sometimes vinyl) disc by the end of the 1950s. Vinyl offered improved performance, both in stamping and in playback, and came to be generally played with polished diamond styli, and when played properly (precise tracking weight, etc.) offered longer life. Vinyl records were, over-optimistically, advertised as "unbreakable". They were not, but were much less brittle and breakable than shellac. Nearly all were tinted black, but some were colored, as red, swirled, translucent, etc.
Electrical recording




RCA-44, a classic ribbon microphone


Sound recording began as a mechanical process and remained so until the early 1920s (with the exception of the 1899 Telegraphone ) when a string of groundbreaking inventions in the field of electronics revolutionised sound recording and the young recording industry. These included sound transducers such as microphones and loudspeakers , and various electronic devices such as the mixing desk , designed for the amplification and modification of electrical sound signals.
After the Edison phonograph itself, arguably the most significant advances in sound recording, were the electronic systems invented by two American scientists between 1900 and 1924. In 1906 Lee De Forest invented the "Audion" triode vacuum-tube, electronic valve, which could greatly amplify weak electrical signals, (one early use was to amplify long distance telephone in 1915) which became the basis of all subsequent electrical sound systems until the invention of the transistor . The valve was quickly followed by the invention of the Regenerative circuit , Super-Regenerative circuit and the Superheterodyne receiver circuit, all of which were invented and patented by the young electronics genius Edwin Armstrong between 1914 and 1922. Armstrong's inventions made higher fidelity electrical sound recording and reproduction a practical reality, facilitating the development of the electronic amplifier and many other devices; after 1925 these systems had become standard in the recording and radio industry.
While Armstrong published studies about the fundamental operation of the triode vacuum tube before World War I , inventors like Orlando R. Marsh and his Marsh Laboratories , as well as scientists at Bell Telephone Laboratories , achieved their own understanding about the triode and were utilizing the Audion as a repeater in weak telephone circuits. By 1925 it was possible to place a long distance telephone call with these repeaters between New York and San Francisco in 20 minutes, both parties being clearly heard. With this technical prowess, Joseph P. Maxfield and Henry C. Harrison from Bell Telephone Laboratories were skilled in using mechanical analogs of electrical circuits and applied these principles to sound recording and reproduction. [ 7 ] They were ready to demonstrate their results by 1924 using the Wente condenser microphone and the vacuum tube amplifier to drive the "rubber line" wax recorder to cut a master audio disc. [ 8 ]
Meanwhile, radio continued to develop. Armstrong's groundbreaking inventions (including FM radio) also made possible the broadcasting of long-range, high-quality radio transmissions of voice and music. The importance of Armstrong's Superheterodyne circuit cannot be over-estimated — it is the central component of almost all analog amplification and both analog and digital radio-frequency transmitter and receiver devices to this day.
Beginning during World War One, experiments were undertaken in the United States and Great Britain to reproduce among other things, the sound of a Submarine (u-boat) for training purposes. The acoustical recordings of that time proved entirely unable to reproduce the sounds, and other methods were actively sought. Radio had developed independently to this point, and now Bell Laboritories sought a marriage of the two disparate technologies, greater than the two separately. The first experiments were not very promising, but by 1920 greater sound fidelity was achieved using the electrical system than had ever been realized acoustically. One early recording made without fanfare or announcement was the dedication of the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier at Arlington Cemetery.
By early 1924 such dramatic progress had been made, that Bell Labs arranged a demonstration for the leading recording companies, the Victor Talking Machine Company , and the Columbia Phonograph Co. ( Edison was left out due to their decreasing market share and a stubborn Thomas Edison ). Columbia, always in financial straits, could not afford it, and Victor, essentially leaderless since the mental collapse of founder Eldridge Johnson, left the demonstration without comment. English Columbia , by then a separate company, got hold of a test pressing made by Pathé from these sessions, and realized the immediate and urgent need to have the new system. Bell was only offering its method to United States companies, and to circumvent this, Managing Director Louis Sterling of English Columbia, bought his once parent company, and signed up for electrical recording. Although they were contemplating a deal, Victor Talking Machine was apprised of the new Columbia deal, so they too quickly signed. Columbia made its first released electrical recordings on February 25, 1925, with Victor following a few weeks later. The two then agreed privately to "be quiet" until November 1925, by which time enough electrical repertory would be available.
Other recording formats
In the 1920s, the early talkies featured the new sound-on-film technology which used photoelectric cells to record and reproduce sound signals that were optically recorded directly onto the movie film. The introduction of talking movies, spearheaded by The Jazz Singer in 1927 (though it used a sound on disk technique, not a photoelectric one), saw the rapid demise of live cinema musicians and orchestras. They were replaced with pre-recorded soundtracks, causing the loss of many jobs. [ 9 ] The American Federation of Musicians took out ads in newspapers, protesting the replacement of real musicians with mechanical playing devices, especially in theatres. [ 10 ]
This period also saw several other historic developments including the introduction of the first practical magnetic sound recording system, the magnetic wire recorder , which was based on the work of Danish inventor Valdemar Poulsen . Magnetic wire recorders were effective, but the sound quality was poor, so between the wars they were primarily used for voice recording and marketed as business dictating machines. In the 1930s radio pioneer Guglielmo Marconi developed a system of magnetic sound recording using steel tape. This was the same material used to make razor blades, and not surprisingly the fearsome Marconi-Stille recorders were considered so dangerous that technicians had to operate them from another room for safety. Because of the high recording speeds required, they used enormous reels about one metre in diameter, and the thin tape frequently broke, sending jagged lengths of razor steel flying around the studio.
The K1 Magnetophon was the first practical tape recorder, developed by AEG in Germany in 1935. The other major invention in sound recording in this period was the optical sound-on-film system, also generally credited to Lee De Forest. Although famous early " Talkies " like The Jazz Singer used a sound-on-disc system, the film industry eventually adopted the optical sound-on-film system and it revolutionised the movie industry in the 1930s, ushering in the era of 'talking pictures'. Optical sound-on-film, based on the photoelectric cell , became the standard film audio system throughout the world until it was superseded in the 1960s.
Magnetic tape
Main article: magnetic tape sound recording
Other important inventions of this period were magnetic tape and the tape recorder (Telegraphone). Paper-based tape was first used but was soon superseded by polyester and acetate backing due to dust drop and hiss. Acetate was more brittle than polyester and snapped easily. This technology, the basis for almost all commercial recording from the 1950s to the 1980s, was invented by German audio engineers in the 1930s, who also discovered the technique of AC biasing , which dramatically improved the frequency response of tape recordings. Tape recording was perfected just after the war by American audio engineer John T. Mullin with the help of Crosby Enterprises ( Bing Crosby ), whose pioneering recorders were based on captured German recorders, and the Ampex company produced the first commercially available tape recorders in the late 1940s.




A typical Compact Cassette


Magnetic tape brought about sweeping changes in both radio and the recording industry. Sound could be recorded, erased and re-recorded on the same tape many times, sounds could be duplicated from tape to tape with only minor loss of quality, and recordings could now be very precisely edited by physically cutting the tape and rejoining it. Within a few years of the introduction of the first commercial tape recorder, the Ampex 200 model, launched in 1948, American musician-inventor Les Paul had invented the first multitrack tape recorder , bringing about another technical revolution in the recording industry. Tape made possible the first sound recordings totally created by electronic means, opening the way for the bold sonic experiments of the Musique Concrète school and avant garde composers like Karlheinz Stockhausen , which in turn led to the innovative pop music recordings of artists such as Frank Zappa , The Beatles and The Beach Boys .
Tape enabled the radio industry for the first time to pre-record many sections of program content such as advertising, which formerly had to be presented live, and it also enabled the creation and duplication of complex, high-fidelity, long-duration recordings of entire programs. It also, for the first time, allowed broadcasters, regulators and other interested parties to undertake comprehensive logging of radio broadcasts. Innovations like multitracking and tape echo enabled radio programs and advertisements to be pre-produced to a level of complexity and sophistication that was previously unattainable and tape also led to significant changes to the pacing of program content, thanks to the introduction of the endless-loop tape cartridge .
Stereo and hi-fi
See also: Stereophonic sound  and High fidelity
Magnetic tape also enabled the development of the first practical commercial sound systems that could record and reproduce high-fidelity stereophonic sound . Experiments with stereo dated back to the 1880s and during the 1930s and 1940s there were many attempts to record in stereo using discs, but these were hampered by problems with synchronization. The first major breakthrough in practical stereo sound was made by Bell Laboratories , who in 1937 demonstrated a practical system of two-channel stereo, using dual optical sound tracks on film. Major movie studios quickly developed three-track and four-track sound systems, and the first stereo sound recording in a commercial film was made by Judy Garland for the MGM movie Listen, Darling in 1938. The first commercially-released movie with a full surround soundtrack was Walt Disney's Fantasia , released in 1940. The sound for this production was originally recorded on a completely separate magnetic film, but because of the complex equipment required to present it, it was shown as a road show, but only in the United States. Regular releases of the film were on standard mono optical 35 mm stock until the film was transferred to multichannel 70mm stock in the 1970s.
German audio engineers working on magnetic tape are reported to have developed stereo recording by 1943, but it was not until the introduction of the first commercial two-track tape recorders by Ampex in the late 1940s that stereo tape recording became commercially feasible. However, despite the availability of multitrack tape, stereo did not become the standard system for commercial music recording for some years and it remained a specialist market during the 1950s. This changed after the late 1957 introduction of the "Westrex stereo phonograph disc". Decca Records in England came out with FFRR (Full Frequency Range Recording) in the 1940s which became internationally accepted and a worldwide standard for higher quality recordings on vinyl records. The Ernest Ansermet recording of Igor Stravinsky 's Petrushka was key in the development of full frequency range records and alerting the listening public to high fidelity in 1946. [ 11 ]
Most pop singles were mixed into monophonic sound until the mid 1960s, and it was common for major pop releases to be issued in both mono and stereo until the early 1970s. Many Sixties pop albums now available only in stereo were originally intended to be released only in mono, and the so-called "stereo" version of these albums were created by simply separating the two tracks of the master tape. In the mid Sixties, as stereo became more popular, many mono recordings (such as The Beach Boys' Pet Sounds ) were remastered using the so-called " fake stereo " method, which spread the sound across the stereo field by directing higher-frequency sound into one channel and lower-frequency sounds into the other.
1950s and beyond





This section does not cite any references or sources .
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . (December 2008)


Magnetic tape transformed the recording industry, and by the late-1950s the vast majority of commercial recordings were being mastered on tape. The electronics revolution that followed the invention of the transistor brought other radical changes, the most important of which was the introduction of the world's first "personal music device", the miniaturized transistor radio , which became a major consumer luxury item in the 1960s, transforming radio broadcasting from a static group experience into a mobile, personal listening activity. An early multitrack recording made using magnetic tape was " How High the Moon " by Les Paul , on which Paul played eight overdubbed guitar tracks. In the 1960s Brian Wilson of The Beach Boys , Frank Zappa and The Beatles (with producer George Martin ) were among the first popular artists to explore the possibilities of multitrack techniques and effects on their landmark albums Pet Sounds , Freak Out! and Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band .
The next important innovation was small cartridge based tape systems of which the compact cassette , introduced by the Philips electronics company in 1964 is the best known. It eventually entirely replaced the competing formats, the larger 8-track tape (used primarily in cars) and the fairly similar 'Deutsche Cassette' developed by the German company Grundig. This latter system was not particularly common in Europe and practically unheard of in America. The compact cassette became a major consumer audio format and advances in microelectronics eventually allowed the development of the Sony Walkman , introduced in the 1970s, which was the first personal music player and gave a major boost to the mass distribution of music recordings. Cassettes became the first successful consumer recording/re-recording medium. The gramophone record was a pre-recorded playback only medium, and reel-to-reel tape was too difficult for most consumers and far less portable.
A key advance in audio fidelity came with the Dolby A noise reduction system, invented by Ray Dolby and introduced in 1966. A competing system dbx , invented by David Blackmer, found most success in professional audio. A simpler variant of Dolby's noise reduction system, known as Dolby B greatly improved the sound of cassette tape recordings by reducing the practical effect of the recorded hiss inherent in the narrow tape used. It, and variants, also eventually found wide application in the recording and film industries. Dolby B was crucial to the popularisation and commercial success of the compact cassette as a domestic recording and playback medium, and became a part of the booming "hi-fi" market of the 1970s and beyond. The compact cassette also benefited enormously from developments in the tape material itself as materials with wider frequency responses and lower inherent noise were developed, often based on cobalt and/or chrome oxides as the magnetic material instead of the more usual iron oxide.
The multitrack audio cartridge had been in wide use in the radio industry, from the late 1950s to the 1980s, but in the 1960s the pre-recorded 8-track cartridge was launched as a consumer audio format by Bill Lear of the Lear Jet aircraft company (and although its correct name was the 'Lear Jet Cartridge', it was seldom referred to as such). Aimed particularly at the automotive market, they were the first practical, affordable car hi-fi systems, and could produce superior sound quality to the compact cassette. However the smaller size and greater durability — augmented by the ability to create home-recorded music "compilations" since 8-track recorders were rare — saw the cassette become the dominant consumer format for portable audio devices in the 1970s and 1980s.
There had been experiments with multi-channel sound for many years — usually for special musical or cultural events — but the first commercial application of the concept came in the early 1970s with the introduction of Quadraphonic sound. This spin-off development from multitrack recording used four tracks (instead of the two used in stereo) and four speakers to create a 360-degree audio field around the listener. Following the release of the first consumer 4-channel hi-fi systems, a number of popular albums were released in one of the competing four-channel formats; among the best known are Mike Oldfield 's Tubular Bells and Pink Floyd 's The Dark Side of the Moon . Quadraphonic sound was not a commercial success, partly because of competing and somewhat incompatible four-channel sound systems (eg, CBS , JVC , Dynaco and others all had systems) and generally poor quality, even when played as intended on the correct equipment, of the released music. It eventually faded out in the late 1970s, although this early venture paved the way for the eventual introduction of domestic Surround Sound systems in home theatre use, which have gained enormous popularity since the introduction of the DVD . This widespread adoption has occurred despite the confusion introduced by the multitude of available surround sound standards.
The replacement of the thermionic valve (vacuum tube) by the smaller, cooler and less power-hungry transistor also accelerated the sale of consumer high-fidelity " hi-fi " sound systems from the 1960s onward. In the 1950s most record players were monophonic and had relatively low sound quality; few consumers could afford high-quality stereophonic sound systems. In the 1960s, American manufacturers introduced a new generation of "modular" hi-fi components — separate turntables, pre-amplifiers, amplifiers, both combined as integrated amplifiers, tape recorders, and other ancillary equipment (like the graphic equaliser ), which could be connected together to create a complete home sound system. These developments were rapidly taken up by Japanese electronics companies, which soon flooded the world market with relatively cheap, high-quality components. By the 1980s, corporations like Sony had become world leaders in the music recording and playback industry.
Digital recording
Main article: Digital recording
See also: Pulse code modulation , Digital audio , Hard disk recorder , and Digital audio workstation




Graphical representation of a sound wave in analog (red) and 4-bit digital (black).


The invention of digital sound recording and later the compact disc in 1982 brought significant improvements in the durability of consumer recordings. The CD initiated another massive wave of change in the consumer music industry, with vinyl records effectively relegated to a small niche market by the mid-1990s. However, the introduction of digital systems was initially fiercely resisted by the record industry which feared wholesale piracy on a medium which was able to produce perfect copies of original released recordings. However, the industry had to bow to the inevitable, but not without using various protection system (principally SCMS ).




A digital sound recorder from Sony.


The most recent and revolutionary developments have been in digital recording, with the development of various uncompressed and compressed digital audio file formats , processors capable and fast enough to convert the digital data to sound in real time , and inexpensive mass storage . This generated a new type of portable digital audio player . The minidisc player, using ATRAC compression on small, cheap, re-writeable discs was introduced in the 1990s but became obsolescent as solid-state non-volatile flash memory dropped in price. As technologies which increase the amount of data that can be stored on a single medium, such as Super Audio CD , DVD-A , Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD become available, longer programs of higher quality fit onto a single disc. Sound files are readily downloaded from the Internet and other sources, and copied onto computers and digital audio players. Digital audio technology is used in all areas of audio, from casual use of music files of moderate quality to the most demanding professional applications. New applications such as internet radio and podcasting have appeared.
Technological developments in recording and editing have transformed the record , movie and television industries in recent decades. Audio editing became practicable with the invention of magnetic tape recording , but digital audio and cheap mass storage allows computers to edit audio files quickly, easily, and cheaply. Today, the process of making a recording is separated into tracking, mixing and mastering . Multitrack recording makes it possible to capture signals from several microphones, or from different 'takes' to tape or disc, with maximized headroom and quality, allowing previously unavailable flexibility in the mixing and mastering stages for editing, level balancing, compressing and limiting , adding effects such as reverberation , equalisation , flanging , and much more.
Digital recording and processing software
There are many different digital audio recording and processing programs running under several computer operating systems for all purposes, from professional through serious amateur to casual user.
A comprehensive list of digital recording applications is available on the digital audio workstation page.
Digital dictation software for recording and transcribing speech has different requirements; intelligibility and flexible playback facilities are priorities, while a wide frequency range and high audio quality are not.
Voice to note
Voice-to-note refers to the capability of personal computers to be able to recognize notes that are sung, hummed, or whistled into a microphone . The pitch and duration of the notes are then calculated and converted into MIDI music files. [ citation needed ]
Legal status
UK
Since 1934, sound recordings are treated differently from musical works under copyright law. [ 12 ] Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 defines a sound recording to mean (a) a recording of sounds, from which the sounds may be reproduced, or (b) a recording of the whole or any part of a literary, dramatic or musical work, from which sounds reproducing the work or part may be produced, regardless of the medium on which the recording is made or the method by which the sounds are reproduced or produced . It thus covers vinyl records, tapes, compact discs, digital audiotapes, and MP3s which embody recordings.
Notes


^ Fowler, Charles B. (October 1967). "The Museum of Music: A History of Mechanical Instruments" . Music Educators Journal (MENC_ The National Association for Music Education) 54 (2): 45–49. doi : 10.2307/3391092 . http://jstor.org/stable/3391092  
^ Teun Koetsier (2001). "On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators", Mechanism and Machine theory 36 , pp. 590–591.
^ a b Ron Cohen (May 29, 2009). Science News . http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/44267/title/Earliest_known_sound_recordings_revealed .  
^ White-Smith Music Pub. Co. v. Apollo Co. , 209 U.S. 1 ( 1908 )
^ Publication Images
^ Warren Rex Isom, Before the Fine Groove and Stereo Record and Other Innovations ..... , Journal of the Audio Engineering Society, October/November 1977, Vol. 25, Number 10/11; reprinted at [1]
^ Maxfield, J. P. and H. C. Harrison. Methods of high quality recording and reproduction of speech based on telephone research. Bell System Technical Journal, July 1926, 493–523.
^ Powell, James R., Jr. The Audiophile's Guide to 78 rpm, Transcription, and Microgroove Recordings. Gramophone Adventures, Portage, MI; ISBN 0-9634921-2-8
^ American Federation of Musicians. Cf. History — 1927, 1928. "1927 — With the release of the first 'talkie', The Jazz Singer, orchestras in movie theaters were displaced. The AFM had its first encounter with wholesale unemployment brought about by technology. Within three years, 22,000 theater jobs for musicians who accompanied silent movies were lost, while only a few hundred jobs for musicians performing on soundtracks were created. 1928 — While continuing to protest the loss of jobs due to the use of 'canned music' with motion pictures, the AFM set minimum wage scales for Vitaphone, Movietone and phonograph record work. Because synchronizing music with pictures for the movies was particularly difficult, the AFM was able to set high prices for this work."
^ Canned Music on Trial, 1929 advertisement by the American Federation of Musicians — The statement from this 1929 advertisement in the Pittsburgh Press , a newspaper, said, in part:

[ picture of a can with a label saying 'Canned Music — Big Noise Brand — Guaranteed to produce no intellectual or emotional reaction whatever' ]
Canned Music On Trial . This is the case of Art versus Mechanical Music in theatres. The defendant stands accused in front of the American people of attempted corruption of musical appreciation and discouragement of musical education. Theatres in many cities are offering synchronised mechanical music as a substitute for Real Music. If the theatre-going public accepts this vitiation of its entertainment program a deplorable decline in the Art of Music is inevitable. Musical authorities know that the soul of the Art is lost in mechanisation. It cannot be otherwise because the quality of music is dependent on the mood of the artist, upon the human contact, without which the essence of intellectual stimulation and emotional rapture is lost.
Is Music Worth Saving? No great volume of evidence is required to answer this question. Music is a well-nigh universally beloved art. From the beginning of history, men have turned to musical expression to lighten the burdens of life, to make them happier. Aborigines, lowest in the scale of savagery, chant their song to tribal gods and play upon pipes and shark-skin drums. Musical development has kept pace with good taste and ethics throughout the ages, and has influenced the gentler nature of man more powerfully perhaps than any other factor. Has it remained for the Great Age of Science to snub the Art by setting up in its place a pale and feeble shadow of itself?
American Federation of Musicians (Comprising 140,000 musicians in the United States and Canada), Joseph N. Weber, President. Broadway, New York City ."

dvd duplication

dvd duplication

wedding videography

wedding videography

Videography refers to the process of capturing moving images on electronic media (e.g., videotape , hard disk , or solid state storage , streaming media ). The term includes methods of electronic production and post production. It is the equivalent of cinematography , but with images recorded on electronic media instead of film stock .
The word combines "video" from Latin, meaning "I see" or "I apprehend", with the Greek terminal ending "graphy", meaning "to write". Its contemporary sense is rooted in an article titled "Videography: What Does It All Mean?" ( American Cinematographer , October 1972).
The advent of digital imaging in the late 20th century began to blur the distinction between videography and cinematography.
The videography market has grown to include distribution as well as production. With this growth has come market segmentation, based on the application: event video, corporate video, broadcast video , etc.
The advent of the Internet has created a global environment where videography covers many more fields than just shooting video with a camera. [ citation needed ] Included under the videography umbrella are digital animation (such as Flash ), gaming , web streaming , video blogging , still slideshows , remote sensing, spatial imaging, medical imaging, and in general the production of most bitmap - and vector -based assets. As the field progresses videographers may produce their assets entirely on a computer without ever involving an imaging device, using software-driven solutions. Moreover, the very concept of sociality and privacy are being reformed by the proliferation of cell-phone video cameras, which are spreading at an exceptional rate in industrialized societies.
A videographer may be the person actually operating the camera or he or she may be the person in charge of the visual design of a production (the latter being the equivalent of a cinematographer).
Videography also refers to the compiling of an artist's music videos or video releases (compare with " filmography " or " discography ").
See also



Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Videography



Video production
Wedding videography
Event videography
Institute of Videography
Underwater videography

studio rental

studio rental

A studio is an artist 's or worker's workroom, or an artist and his or her employees who work within that studio. This can be for the purpose of architecture , painting , pottery ( ceramics ), sculpture , scrapbooking , photography , graphic design , cinematography , animation , radio or television broadcasting or the making of music . The term is also used for the workroom of dancers, often specified to dance studio .
The word studio is derived from the Italian : studio , from Latin : studium , from studere , meaning to study or zeal .
The French term for studio, atelier , in addition to designating an artist's studio is used to characterize the studio of a fashion designer. Atelier also has the connotation of being the home of an alchemist or wizard .




Contents


1 Art studio
2 Educational studio
3 Pottery Studio
4 Production studios

4.1 Movie Studio
4.2 Animation studio
4.3 Comics studio
4.4 Recording studio
4.5 Television studio
4.6 Radio studio
4.7 Photographic studio
4.8 Mastering studio


5 Instructional studio





//

Art studio




Artist Jane Frank in her studio, 1960s or 1970s. The studio of a contemporary mixed media artist can be quite a messy affair.


The studio of a successful artist, especially from the 15th to the 19th centuries, characterized all the assistants, thus the designation of paintings as "from the workshop of..." or "studio of..." An art studio is sometimes called an atelier , especially in earlier eras. In contemporary, English language use, "atelier" can also refer to the Atelier Method , a training method for artists that usually takes place in a professional artist's studio.
The above mentioned "method" calls upon that zeal for study to play a significant role in the production which occurs in a studio space. A studio is more or less artful to the degree that the artist who occupies it is committed to the continuing education in his or her formal discipline. Academic curriculi categorize studio classes in order to prepare students for the rigors of building sets of skills which require a continuity of practice in order to achieve growth and mastery of their artistic expression. A versatile and creative mind will embrace the opportunity of such practice to innovate and experiment, which develops uniquely individual qualities of each artist's expression. Thus the method raises and maintains an Art studio space above the level of a mere production facility or workshop.
Educational studio
In educational studios, students learn to develop skills related to design, ranging from architecture to product design. In specific, educational studios are studio settings where large numbers of students learn to draft and design with instructional help at a college. Educational studios are colloquially referred to as "studio" by students, who are known for staying up late hours into the night doing projects and socializing.
Pottery Studio
Studio pottery is made by an individual potter working on his own in his studio, rather than in a ceramics factory (although there may be a design studio within a larger manufacturing site).
Production studios
Production studios are those studios which act as centres for the production in any of the arts ; alternatively they can also be the financial and commercial entity behind such endeavours. In Radio & TV the Production Studio is the place where programs and commercial advertising is recorded for further emission.
Movie Studio
Main article: Movie studio
A movie studio is a company which develops, equips and maintains a controlled environment for the making of a film . This environment may be interior ( sound stage ), exterior ( backlot ) or both.
Animation studio
Animation studios, like movie studios, may be production facilities, or financial entities. In some cases, especially in Anime they continue the tradition of a studio where a Master or group of talented individuals oversee the work of lesser artists and crafts persons in realising their vision.
Comics studio
Artists, predominantly those producing comics , still employ small studios of staff to assist in the creation of a comic strip , comic book or graphic novel . In the early days of Dan Dare , Frank Hampson employed a number of staff at his studio to help with the production of the strip. Eddie Campbell is another creator who has assembled a small studio of colleagues to help him in his art, and the comic book industry of the United States has based its production methods upon the studio system employed at its beginnings.
Recording studio
Main article: Recording studio
A recording studio is a facility for sound recording which generally consists of at least two rooms: the studio or live room, and the control room, where the sound from the studio is recorded and manipulated. They are designed so that they have good acoustics and that there is good isolation between the rooms.
Television studio
Main article: Television studio
A television studio is an installation in which television or video productions take place, either for live television , for recording live on tape , or for the acquisition of raw footage for postproduction . The design of a studio is similar to, and derived from, movie studios , with a few amendments for the special requirements of television production. A professional television studio generally has several rooms, which are kept separate for noise and practicality reasons.
Radio studio
A radio studio is a room in which a radio program or show is produced, either for live broadcast or for recording for a later broadcast. The room is soundproofed to avoid unwanted noise being mixed into the broadcast.
Photographic studio
Main article: Photographic studio
A photographic studio is both a workspace and a corporate body. As a workspace it provides space to take, develop, print and duplicate photographs.
Mastering studio
An audio/video recording studio specialized in the post-production stage for musical and/or video recordings (After the initial, first/rough draft or mix recording is complete). Tasks may include but not be limited to: editing, mixing, video post-production and audio mastering , to produce a finished version ready for broadcast, replication and digital distribution. In music applications, a mastering studio may use different types of equipment and tools than the traditional production studios like: a frequency spectrum analyzer for accurate frequency band measurement, a phase scope to gauge stereo depth, etc.
[

website programming

website programming

A website (also spelled Web site [ 1 ] ; officially styled website by the AP Stylebook ) is a collection of related web pages , images, videos or other digital assets that are addressed relative to a common Uniform Resource Locator (URL), often consisting of only the domain name, or the IP address , and the root path ('/') in an Internet Protocol -based network. A web site is hosted on at least one web server , accessible via a network such as the Internet or a private local area network .
A web page is a document , typically written in plain text interspersed with formatting instructions of Hypertext Markup Language (HTML, XHTML ). A web page may incorporate elements from other websites with suitable markup anchors .
Web pages are accessed and transported with the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), which may optionally employ encryption ( HTTP Secure , HTTPS) to provide security and privacy for the user of the web page content. The user's application, often a web browser , renders the page content according to its HTML markup instructions onto a display terminal .
All publicly accessible websites collectively constitute the World Wide Web .
The pages of a website can usually be accessed from a simple Uniform Resource Locator (URL) called the homepage . The URLs of the pages organize them into a hierarchy, although hyperlinking between them conveys the reader's perceived site structure and guides the reader's navigation of the site.
Some websites require a subscription to access some or all of their content. Examples of subscription websites include many business sites, parts of news websites, academic journal websites, gaming websites, message boards , web-based e-mail , social networking websites, websites providing real-time stock market data, and websites providing various other services (e.g. websites offering storing and/or sharing of images, files and so forth).




Contents


1 History
2 Overview
3 Static website
4 Dynamic website

4.1 Dynamic code
4.2 Dynamic content
4.3 Purpose of dynamic websites


5 Software systems

5.1 Content-based sites
5.2 Product- or service-based sites


6 Phrasing it
7 Types of websites
8 Awards
9 See also
10 References
11 External links





//

History
The World Wide Web (WWW) was created in 1989 by CERN physicist Tim Berners-Lee . [ 2 ] On 30 April 1993, CERN announced that the World Wide Web would be free to use for anyone. [ 3 ] Before the introduction of HTML and HTTP, other protocols such as file transfer protocol and the gopher protocol were used to retrieve individual files from a server. These protocols offer a simple directory structure which the user navigates and chooses files to download. Documents were most often presented as plain text files without formatting or were encoded in word processor formats.
Overview
Organized by function, a website may be

a personal website
a commercial website
a government website
a non-profit organization website

It could be the work of an individual, a business or other organization, and is typically dedicated to some particular topic or purpose. Any website can contain a hyperlink to any other website, so the distinction between individual sites, as perceived by the user, may sometimes be blurred.
Websites are written in, or dynamically converted to, HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language) and are accessed using a software interface classified as a user agent . Web pages can be viewed or otherwise accessed from a range of computer-based and Internet-enabled devices of various sizes, including desktop computers, laptops, PDAs and cell phones.
A website is hosted on a computer system known as a web server , also called an HTTP server, and these terms can also refer to the software that runs on these systems and that retrieves and delivers the web pages in response to requests from the website users. Apache is the most commonly used web server software (according to Netcraft statistics) and Microsoft 's Internet Information Server (IIS) is also commonly used.
Static website
Main article: static web page
A static website is one that has web pages stored on the server in the format that is sent to a client web browser. It is primarily coded in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML).
Simple forms or marketing examples of websites, such as classic website , a five-page website or a brochure website are often static websites, because they present pre-defined, static information to the user. This may include information about a company and its products and services via text, photos, animations, audio/video and interactive menus and navigation.
This type of website usually displays the same information to all visitors. Similar to handing out a printed brochure to customers or clients, a static website will generally provide consistent, standard information for an extended period of time. Although the website owner may make updates periodically, it is a manual process to edit the text, photos and other content and may require basic website design skills and software.
In summary, visitors are not able to control what information they receive via a static website, and must instead settle for whatever content the website owner has decided to offer at that time.
They are edited using four broad categories of software:

Text editors , such as Notepad or TextEdit , where content and HTML markup are manipulated directly within the editor program
WYSIWYG offline editors, such as Microsoft FrontPage and Adobe Dreamweaver (previously Macromedia Dreamweaver), with which the site is edited using a GUI interface and the final HTML markup is generated automatically by the editor software
WYSIWYG online editors which create media rich online presentation like web pages, widgets, intro, blogs, and other documents.
Template-based editors, such as Rapidweaver and iWeb , which allow users to quickly create and upload web pages to a web server without detailed HTML knowledge, as they pick a suitable template from a palette and add pictures and text to it in a desktop publishing fashion without direct manipulation of HTML code .

Dynamic website
Main article: dynamic web page
A dynamic website is one that changes or customizes itself frequently and automatically, based on certain criteria.
Dynamic websites can have two types of dynamic activity: Code and Content. Dynamic code is invisible or behind the scenes and dynamic content is visible or fully displayed.
Dynamic code
The first type is a web page with dynamic code. The code is constructed dynamically on the fly using active programming language instead of plain, static HTML.
A website with dynamic code refers to its construction or how it is built, and more specifically refers to the code used to create a single web page. A dynamic web page is generated on the fly by piecing together certain blocks of code, procedures or routines. A dynamically-generated web page would call various bits of information from a database and put them together in a pre-defined format to present the reader with a coherent page. It interacts with users in a variety of ways including by reading cookies recognizing users' previous history, session variables, server side variables etc., or by using direct interaction (form elements, mouseovers, etc.). A site can display the current state of a dialogue between users, monitor a changing situation, or provide information in some way personalized to the requirements of the individual user.
Dynamic content
The second type is a website with dynamic content displayed in plain view. Variable content is displayed dynamically on the fly based on certain criteria, usually by retrieving content stored in a database.
A website with dynamic content refers to how its messages, text, images and other information are displayed on the web page, and more specifically how its content changes at any given moment. The web page content varies based on certain criteria, either pre-defined rules or variable user input. For example, a website with a database of news articles can use a pre-defined rule which tells it to display all news articles for today's date. This type of dynamic website will automatically show the most current news articles on any given date. Another example of dynamic content is when a retail website with a database of media products allows a user to input a search request for the keyword Beatles. In response, the content of the web page will spontaneously change the way it looked before, and will then display a list of Beatles products like CD's, DVD's and books.
Purpose of dynamic websites
The main purpose of a dynamic website is automation. A dynamic website can operate more effectively, be built more efficiently and is easier to maintain, update and expand. It is much simpler to build a template and a database than to build hundreds or thousands of individual, static HTML web pages.
Software systems
There is a wide range of software systems, such as ANSI C servlets ), Java Server Pages (JSP), the PHP and Perl programming languages , Active Server Pages (ASP), YUMA and ColdFusion (CFML) that are available to generate dynamic web systems and dynamic sites. Sites may also include content that is retrieved from one or more databases or by using XML -based technologies such as RSS .
Static content may also be dynamically generated either periodically, or if certain conditions for regeneration occur (cached) in order to avoid the performance loss of initiating the dynamic engine on a per-user or per-connection basis.
Plug ins are available to expand the features and abilities of web browsers, which use them to show active content, such as Microsoft Silverlight , Adobe Flash , Adobe Shockwave or applets written in Java . Dynamic HTML also provides for user interactivity and realtime element updating within web pages (i.e., pages don't have to be loaded or reloaded to effect any changes), mainly using the Document Object Model (DOM) and JavaScript , support which is built-in to most modern web browsers.
Turning a website into an income source is a common practice for web developers and website owners. There are several methods for creating a website business which fall into two broad categories, as defined below.
Content-based sites
Some websites derive revenue by selling advertising space on the site (see Contextual advertising ).
Product- or service-based sites
Some websites derive revenue by offering products or services for sale. In the case of e-commerce websites, the products or services may be purchased at the website itself, by entering credit card or other payment information into a payment form on the site. While most business websites serve as a shop window for existing brick and mortar businesses, it is increasingly the case that some websites are businesses in their own right; that is, the products they offer are only available for purchase on the web.
Websites occasionally derive income from a combination of these two practices. For example, a website such as an online auctions website may charge the users of its auction service to list an auction, but also display third-party advertisements on the site, from which it derives further income.
Phrasing it
The forms website and Web site are the most commonly used forms, the former especially in British English . However, Reuters , Microsoft , academia, large book publishers , The Chicago Manual of Style , and dictionaries such as Merriam-Webster use the two-word, initially capitalized phrase Web site . This is because " Web " is not a generic term, but rather, it is a short form of the proper name World Wide Web . As with many newly created terms, it may take some time before a common phrasing is finalized. This controversy also applies to the related terms such as Web page, Web master, and Web cam, which are all derived from the proper name "World Wide Web" .
The Canadian Oxford Dictionary and the Canadian Press Style book list "website" and "web page" as the preferred phrases. The Oxford English Dictionary began using "website" as its standardized form in 2004. [ 4 ]
Bill Walsh , the copy chief of The Washington Post's national desk, and one of the foremost grammarians of American English's , argues for using the two-word phrase with the capital W in his books, Lapsing into a Comma and The Elephants of Style , and on his Web site, The Slot . [ 5 ]
The AP Stylebook from The Associated Press for many years [ 6 ] said that " Web site " was the proper way to state this term, but the AP announced in April 2010 it would change to merely "website" [ 7 ] .
Types of websites
There are many varieties of websites, each specializing in a particular type of content or use, and they may be arbitrarily classified in any number of ways. A few such classifications might include: [ original research? ]

Affiliate : enabled portal that renders not only its custom CMS but also syndicated content from other content providers for an agreed fee. There are usually three relationship tiers. Affiliate Agencies (e.g., Commission Junction ), Advertisers (e.g., eBay ) and consumer (e.g., Yahoo! ).
Archive site : used to preserve valuable electronic content threatened with extinction. Two examples are: Internet Archive , which since 1996 has preserved billions of old (and new) web pages; and Google Groups , which in early 2005 was archiving over 845,000,000 messages posted to Usenet news/discussion groups.
Answer Site: Answer site is a site where people can ask questions & answer questions like Yahoo! Answers
Blog (web log): sites generally used to post online diaries which may include discussion forums (e.g., blogger , Xanga ).
Brand building site : a site with the purpose of creating an experience of a brand online. These sites usually do not sell anything, but focus on building the brand. Brand building sites are most common for low-value, high-volume fast moving consumer goods (FMCG).
City Site : A site that shows information about a certain city or town and events that takes place in that town. Usually created by the city council or other "movers and shakers".

the same as those of geographic entities, such as cities and countries. For example, Richmond.com is the geodomain for Richmond, Virginia .


Community site : a site where persons with similar interests communicate with each other, usually by chat or message boards, such as MySpace or Facebook .
Content site: sites whose business is the creation and distribution of original content (e.g., Slate , About.com ).
Corporate website : used to provide background information about a business, organization, or service.
Electronic commerce (e-commerce) site: a site offering goods and services for online sale and enabling online transactions for such sales.
Forum : a site where people discuss various topics.
Gripe site : a site devoted to the critique of a person, place, corporation, government, or institution.
Humor site : satirizes, parodies or otherwise exists solely to amuse.
Information site: contains content that is intended to inform visitors, but not necessarily for commercial purposes, such as: RateMyProfessors.com , Free Internet Lexicon and Encyclopedia. Most government, educational and non-profit institutions have an informational site.
Java applet site: contains software to run over the Web as a Web application .
Mirror site: A complete reproduction of a website.
Microblog  : a short and simple form of blogging.
News site : similar to an information site, but dedicated to dispensing news and commentary.
Personal homepage : run by an individual or a small group (such as a family) that contains information or any content that the individual wishes to include. These are usually uploaded using a web hosting service such as Geocities .
Phish site : a website created to fraudulently acquire sensitive information , such as passwords and credit card details, by masquerading as a trustworthy person or business (such as Social Security Administration , PayPal ) in an electronic communication (see Phishing ).
Political site: A site on which people may voice political views.
Porn site : A site that shows sexually explicit content for enjoyment and relaxation, most likely in the form of an Internet gallery, dating site, blog, social networking, or video sharing.
Rating site : A site on which people can praise or disparage what is featured.
Review site : A site on which people can post reviews for products or services.
School site : a site on which teachers, students, or administrators can post information about current events at or involving their school. U.S. elementary-high school websites generally use k12 in the URL, such as kearney.k12.mo.us.
Search engine site: a site that provides general information and is intended as a gateway or lookup for other sites. A pure example is Google , and well-known sites include Yahoo! Search and Bing (search engine) .
Shock site : includes images or other material that is intended to be offensive to most viewers (e.g. rotten.com ).
Social bookmarking site: a site where users share other content from the Internet and rate and comment on the content. StumbleUpon and Digg are examples.
Social networking site: a site where users could communicate with one another and share media, such as pictures, videos, music, blogs, etc. with other users. These may include games and web applications.
Video sharing : A site that enables user to upload videos, such as YouTube and Google Video .
Warez : a site designed to host or link to copyrighted materials such as music, movies and software for the user to download illegally.
Web portal : a site that provides a starting point or a gateway to other resources on the Internet or an intranet.
Wiki site: a site which users collaboratively edit (such as Wikipedia and Wikihow ).

Some websites may be included in one or more of these categories. For example, a business website may promote the business's products, but may also host informative documents, such as white papers . There are also numerous sub-categories to the ones listed above. For example, a porn site is a specific type of e-commerce site or business site (that is, it is trying to sell memberships for access to its site). A fan site may be a dedication from the owner to a particular celebrity .
Websites are constrained by architectural limits (e.g., the computing power dedicated to the website). Very large websites, such as Yahoo!, Microsoft, and Google employ many servers and load balancing equipment such as Cisco Content Services Switches to distribute visitor loads over multiple computers at multiple locations.
In February 2009, Netcraft , an Internet monitoring company that has tracked Web growth since 1995, reported that there were 215,675,903 websites with domain names and content on them in 2009, compared to just 18,000 websites in August 1995.
Awards
The Webby Awards are a set of awards presented to the world's best websites, a concept pioneered by Best of the Web in 1994.
See also




Internet portal






Cognitive metaphor
Cyberspace
Downtime
Extranet
Intranet
List of content management systems
List of websites
Rating sites
Rational (WebSphere) Application Developer
Real user monitoring
Search Engine Optimization
Staging site
Template engine (web)
Tim Berners-Lee , the inventor of the World Wide Web
Uptime
Web analytics
Web application
Web content management
Web design
Web development
Web hosting
Web service
Web Services Security
Webmaster
Website architecture
Website awards
Website Design Process Steps
Website governance
Website monetizing
Website monitoring
Website templates
World Wide Web Consortium (Web standards)
Yahoo! Site Explorer

trade shows video

trade shows video

A trade fair ( trade show or expo ) is an exhibition organized so that companies in a specific industry can showcase and demonstrate their latest products, service, study activities of rivals and examine recent market trends and opportunities . In contrast to consumer fairs , only some trade fairs are open to the public, while others can only be attended by company representatives (members of the trade, e.g. professionals ) and members of the press , therefore trade shows are classified as either "Public" or "Trade Only". A few fairs are hybrids of the two; one example is the Frankfurt Book Fair , which is trade-only for its first three days and open to the general public on its final two days. They are held on a continuing basis in virtually all markets and normally attract companies from around the globe. For example, in the U.S. there are currently over 2500 [ citation needed ] trade shows held every year, and several online directories have been established to help organizers, attendees, and marketers identify appropriate events.




Contents


1 Trade fairs in history
2 Contemporary trade fairs
3 List of major trade fairs
4 See also
5 References





//

Trade fairs in history
Modern trade fairs follow in the tradition of trade fairs established in late medieval Europe, in the era of merchant capitalism . In this era, produce and craft producers visited towns for trading fairs, to sell and showcase products.
Contemporary trade fairs
Trade fairs often involve a considerable marketing investment by participating companies. Costs include space rental, design and construction of trade show displays , telecommunications and networking, travel, accommodations, and promotional literature and items to give to attendees. In addition, costs are incurred at the show for services such as electrical, booth cleaning, internet services, and drayage (also known as material handling). Consequently, cities often promote trade shows as a means of economic development.
Exhibitors attending the event are required to use an exhibitor manual or online exhibitor manual to order their required services and complete any necessary paperwork such as health and safety declarations. An increasing number of trade fairs are happening online, and these events are called virtual tradeshows . They are increasing in popularity due to their relatively low cost and because there is no need to travel whether you are attending or exhibiting.
Large trade fair grounds:


ground
city
indoor floor area
outdoor floor area


Hanover fairground
Hanover
496,000 m 2 (5,340,000 sq ft)
58,070 m 2 (625,100 sq ft)


FieraMilano
Milan
345,000 m 2 (3,710,000 sq ft)
60,000 m 2 (650,000 sq ft)


Frankfurt Trade Fair
Frankfurt am Main
321,000 m 2 (3,460,000 sq ft)
83,700 m 2 (901,000 sq ft)


Las Vegas Convention Center
Las Vegas
297,000 m 2 (3,200,000 sq ft)



Koelnmesse
Cologne
284,000 m 2 (3,060,000 sq ft)
100,000 m 2 (1,100,000 sq ft)


List of major trade fairs
List reviewed on February 18, 2008.


Title
Description
Dates
Location
Visitors


AgQuip
Agriculture
August 19-21, 2008
Gunnedah, New South Wales , Australia
Approximately 100,000 in 2005 [ 1 ]


Alimentaria
Food and beverage
March 22-26, 2010
Barcelona , Spain
157,632 in 2008 [ 2 ]


ambiente
Consumer goods
February 11-15, 2011
Frankfurt Trade Fair , Germany
139,245 in 2008 [ 2 ]


Automechanika
Auto mechanics
September 14-19, 2011
Frankfurt Trade Fair , Germany
161,269 in 2008 [ 2 ]


Bologna Motor Show
Auto show
December 7, 2006
Bologna , Italy
1,200,000 in 2006 [ 3 ]


boot Düsseldorf
Boats
January 23-31, 2010
Düsseldorf , Messe , Germany
267,379 in 2008 [ 2 ]


Bread Basket
Sustainable agriculture
May 12-16, 2010
České Budějovice , Czech Republic
104.565 in 2008 [ 2 ]


Buenos Aires International Book Fair
Books
April 23-May 11, 2009
Buenos Aires , Argentina
1,240,000 in 2008 [ 4 ]


Cairo International Book Fair
Books
January 24, 2007
Cairo , Egypt
2,000,000 in 2007 - largest book fair in the world [ 5 ]


Canton Fair
Consumer and Industry Products
October 15-19, 2008 October 24-28, 2008 November 2-6, 2008
Guangzhou , China
192,013 in Spring Session 2008 [ 6 ]


Caravan Salon
Mobile home
August/September, 2010
Düsseldorf , Messe , Germany
159,278 in 2008 [ 2 ]


CeBIT
Information and communication technology
March 15-21, 2007
Hanover , Germany
480,000 in 2007 [ 7 ]


CES , Consumer Electronics Show
Consumer electronics
January 7-10, 2010
Las Vegas , Nevada
Estimated 200,000 in 2009 [ 8 ]


COMDEX
Computer show
cancelled
Las Vegas , Nevada
50,000 in 2003 [ citation needed ]


Comic Market
Comics
August 15-17, 2008
Tokyo , Japan
550,000 in Summer Session 2008 [ 9 ]


COMPUTEX Taipei
Computer show
June 3-7
Taipei , Taiwan
106,517 in 2008 [ 10 ]


CONEXPO-CON/AGG
Construction
March 22-26, 2011
Las Vegas , Nevada
Approximately 145,000 in 2008 [ 11 ]


Drupa
Printing Equipment
May 29-June 11, 2008
Düsseldorf , Messe , Germany
393,654 in 2004 from 127 countries [ 12 ]


E3 , Electronic Entertainment Expo
Video games
June 2-4
Los Angeles , California
60,000 in 2006; 41,000 in 2009 [ 13 ] E3 became invitation only in 2007 and attendance dropped to around 5,000. [ 14 ]


EICMA
Motorcycles
November 2-7, 2010
Milan , FieraMilano , Italy
504,999 in 2008 [ 2 ]


EuroShop
Retailing
February/March, 2011
Düsseldorf , Messe , Germany
104.766 in 2008 [ 2 ]


EuVend
Vending
September 8-10, 2011
Cologne Trade Fair , Germany
4,809 [ 15 ]


Fieracavalli
Horse show
November 4-7, 2010
Verona , Italy
125,975 in 2008 [ 2 ]


Fiera internazionale dell'agricoltura e della zootecnia
Food and beverages
April/May, 2010
Foggia , Italy
162,466 in 2008 [ 2 ]


Fiera internazionale del libro
Books
May 5, 2007
Turin , Italy
300,000 in 2007


Fitur
Tourism
January 19-23, 2011
Madrid , Spain
202,250 in 2008 [ 2 ]


Foire internationale et gastronomique
Food and beverage
November 1-11, 2010
Dijon , France
201,050 in 2008 [ 2 ]


Frankfurt Book Fair
Books
October 6-10, 2010
Frankfurt Trade Fair , Germany
270,000 in 2004 [ citation needed ]


Games Convention
Video games
August 21-24, 2008
Leipzig , Germany
203,000 in 2008 [ 16 ]


gamescom
Video games
August 19-23, 2009 [ 17 ]
Cologne Trade Fair , Germany
245,000 in 2009 (formerly Games Convention , Leipzig)


Genoa International Boat Show
Boats
October 2-10, 2010
Genoa , Italy
236,322 in 2008 [ 2 ]


GITEX
Consumer electronics
September 6, 2007
Dubai , UAE
120,000 in 2006 [ citation needed ]


Handicrafts Trade Fair
Handcrafts
April/May, 2010
Florence , Italy
151,830 in 2008 [ 2 ]


Hannover Messe
Industry , Technology
April 16-20, 2007
Hanover , Germany
193,222 in 2008 [ 2 ]


IFAT
Waste management
September 13-17, 2010
Munich , Germany
119,476 in 2008 [ 2 ]


imm Cologne
Furniture
January 18-23, 2011
Cologne Trade Fair , Germany
106,677 in 2008 [ 2 ]


interclima + elec
Efficient energy use
February 9-12, 2010
Paris , France
105,0128 in 2008 [ 2 ]


Intermot
Motorcycles
January 18-23, 2011
Cologne Trade Fair , Germany
172,833 in 2008 [ 2 ]


Internationale Automobil-Ausstellung
Cars
September 2007
Frankfurt Trade Fair , Germany
940,000 in 2005 [ citation needed ]


Recruit in Canada University Fairs
Education
September 23 - 26, 2010
Vancouver, Montreal & Toronto, Canada




IGW Berlin
Sustainable agriculture
Januar 21-30, 2011
Berlin , Messe , Germany
424,502 in 2008 [ 2 ]


ITB Berlin
tourism
March 10-14, 2010
Berlin , Messe , Germany
149,776 in 2008 [ 2 ]


International Technical Fair
machine engineering , automobiles , transport , information technologies , software , electronics , electrical engineering , construction , chemistry , power engineering , ecology
September 24, 2007
Plovdiv , Bulgaria
141,000 in 2006 [ citation needed ]


International Tourism Exchange (BIT)
Tourism
February 17-20, 2011
Milan , FieraMilano , Italy
109,571 in 2008 [ 2 ]


INTERNOGRA
Catering
March 18-23, 2011
Hamburg , Germany
111,185 in 2008 [ 2 ]


interpack
Moving industry
May 12-18, 2011
Düsseldorf , Messe , Germany
171,073 in 2008 [ 2 ]


Light + Building
Architectural lighting design
April 15-20, 2012
Frankfurt Trade Fair , Germany
167,084 in 2008 [ 2 ]


MADEexpo
Architecture and buildings
October 5-8, 2011
Milan , FieraMilano , Italy
170,779 in 2008 [ 2 ]


MEDICA
Medical technology
November 17-20, 2010
Düsseldorf , Messe , Germany
136,871 in 2008 [ 2 ]


MINExpo International
Mining
September, Quadriannually
Las Vegas Convention Center , Las Vegas , Nevada
44,000 [ 18 ]


Mobile World Congress
mobile telephony , Communications
February 11-14, 2008
Barcelona , Spain
50,000 in 2007


Mondial de l'Automobile
Auto show
September 30, 2006
Paris , France
1,400,000 in 2006 [ citation needed ]


Mondo Natura
Mobile homes
September 11-19, 2010
Bologna , Italy
114,333 in 2008 [ 2 ]


NAMM
Music
January 17-20, 2007
Anaheim , United States
85,000 [ 19 ]


National Agricultural Fieldays
Agriculture
4 days in Mid June
Hamilton, New Zealand
125,878 in 2007 [ 20 ]


NAB , National Association of Broadcasters
Broadcasting
April 18- 23, 2009
Las Vegas , United States
105,000 in 1999 [5]


Novi Sad Fair
Agriculture
Middle of May
Novi Sad , Serbia
600,000 [ citation needed ]


Nuremberg International Toy Fair
Toys , Games
February 4- 9, 2010
Nuremberg , Germany
75,409 in 2009 [ 21 ]


Paris International Agricultural Show
Agricultural show
February 19-27, 2011
Paris , France
604,422 in 2008 [ 2 ]


Paris Air Show
Aerospace
June 18, 2007
Paris , France
550,000 in 2007 [ citation needed ]


Photokina
Photography
September 26, 2006
Cologne Trade Fair , Germany
169,000 in 2008 [ 22 ]


Pool Trade Show
Fashion
July 17, 2006
New York & Las Vegas
50,000 in 2005 [ citation needed ]


Salón Internacional del Automóvil
auto show
January 19-23, 2011
Madrid , Spain
289,737 in 2008 [ 2 ]


Salone del Mobile (International Furniture Fair)
Furniture
March 2007
Milan , FieraMilano , Italy
270,000 in 2007 [ 23 ]


Salon du Cheval
Horse show
December 5-13, 2009
Paris , France
137,252 in 2008 [ 2 ]


Salon nautique de Paris
Boats
December 4-12, 2009
Paris , France
252,808 in 2008 [ 2 ]


SHOT Show
Firearms
January 18–21, 2011
Varies— Las Vegas in 2011
58,444 in 2010 [ 24 ]


SIMA
Real estate
May 20-23, 2010
Madrid , Spain
122,760 in 2008 [ 2 ]


SIMO TCI
Consumer electronics
November 7, 2006
Madrid , Spain
approximately 300,000 [ 25 ]


SMAU
Computers , Consumer electronics
October 4, 2006
Milan , FieraMilano , Italy
50,000 in 2006 [ citation needed ]


Sydney Royal Easter Show
Agriculture
14 days over Easter
Sydney , Australia
900,000 in 2007 [ 26 ]


Tehran International Book Fair
Book Fair
May 7-15, 2010
Tehran , Iran
Approximately 2,000,000 in 2010 [ citation needed ]


Tokyo Motor Show
Auto shows
October 22, 2005
Tokyo , Japan
1,512,100 in 2005


Tokyo Game Show
Video games
September 22, 2006
Tokyo , Japan
194,288 in 2008


Trade Show Video
computer
August 11-15, 2010
Toronto , Canada
1,240,000 in 2009 [ 27 ]


See also

List of world's fairs

commercials

commercials

Advertising is a form of communication intended to persuade an audience (viewers, readers or listeners) to purchase or take some action upon products, ideals, or services. It includes the name of a product or service and how that product or service could benefit the consumer, to persuade a target market to purchase or to consume that particular brand . These brands are usually paid for or identified through sponsors and viewed via various media. Advertising can also serve to communicate an idea to a mass amount of people in an attempt to convince them to take a certain action, such as encouraging 'environmentally friendly' behaviors, and even unhealthy behaviors through food consumption, video game and television viewing promotion, and a "lazy man" routine through a loss of exercise . Modern advertising developed with the rise of mass production in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Mass media can be defined as any media meant to reach a mass amount of people. Several types of mass media are television, internet, radio, news programs, and published pictures and articles. [ 1 ]
Commercial advertisers often seek to generate increased consumption of their products or services through branding, which involves the repetition of an image or product name in an effort to associate related qualities with the brand in the minds of consumers. Different types of media can be used to deliver these messages, including traditional media such as newspapers, magazines, television, radio, outdoor or direct mail; or new media such as websites and text messages. Advertising may be placed by an advertising agency on behalf of a company or other organization.
Non-commercial advertisers that spend money to advertise items other than a consumer product or service include political parties, interest groups, religious organizations and governmental agencies. Nonprofit organizations may rely on free modes of persuasion, such as a public service announcement .
In 2007, spending on advertising was estimated at more than $150 billion in the United States [ 2 ] and $385 billion worldwide.




Contents


1 History
2 Necessary skills

2.1 Public service advertising


3 Marketing mix
4 Types of advertising

4.1 Digital advertising
4.2 Physical advertising


5 Sales promotions
6 Media and advertising approaches
7 Current trends

7.1 Rise in new media
7.2 Niche marketing
7.3 Crowdsourcing


8 Criticisms
9 Regulation
10 Future of advertising

10.1 Global advertising
10.2 Diversification
10.3 New technology
10.4 Advertising education


11 Advertising research

11.1 Evidence-based advertising


12 See also
13 References
14 Bibliography
15 External links





//

History




Edo period advertising flyer from 1806 for a traditional medicine called Kinseitan


Egyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and wall posters. Commercial messages and political campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii and ancient Arabia . Lost and found advertising on papyrus was common in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome . Wall or rock painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an ancient advertising form, which is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa, and South America. The tradition of wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock art paintings that date back to 4000 BC. [ 3 ] History tells us that Out-of-home advertising and billboards are the oldest forms of advertising.
As the towns and cities of the Middle Ages began to grow, and the general populace was unable to read, signs that today would say cobbler, miller, tailor or blacksmith would use an image associated with their trade such as a boot, a suit, a hat, a clock, a diamond, a horse shoe, a candle or even a bag of flour. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city square from the backs of carts and wagons and their proprietors used street callers ( town criers ) to announce their whereabouts for the convenience of the customers.
As education became an apparent need and reading, as well as printing, developed advertising expanded to include handbills. In the 17th century advertisements started to appear in weekly newspapers in England. These early print advertisements were used mainly to promote books and newspapers, which became increasingly affordable with advances in the printing press ; and medicines, which were increasingly sought after as disease ravaged Europe. However, false advertising and so-called " quack " advertisements became a problem, which ushered in the regulation of advertising content.
As the economy expanded during the 19th century, advertising grew alongside. In the United States, the success of this advertising format eventually led to the growth of mail-order advertising.
In June 1836, French newspaper La Presse was the first to include paid advertising in its pages, allowing it to lower its price, extend its readership and increase its profitability and the formula was soon copied by all titles. Around 1840, Volney Palmer established a predecessor to advertising agencies in Boston . [ 4 ] Around the same time, in France, Charles-Louis Havas extended the services of his news agency, Havas to include advertisement brokerage, making it the first French group to organize. At first, agencies were brokers for advertisement space in newspapers. N. W. Ayer & Son was the first full-service agency to assume responsibility for advertising content. N.W. Ayer opened in 1869, and was located in Philadelphia. [ 4 ]




An 1895 advertisement for a weight gain product.


At the turn of the century, there were few career choices for women in business; however, advertising was one of the few. Since women were responsible for most of the purchasing done in their household , advertisers and agencies recognized the value of women's insight during the creative process . In fact, the first American advertising to use a sexual sell was created by a woman – for a soap product. Although tame by today's standards, the advertisement featured a couple with the message "The skin you love to touch". [ 5 ]
In the early 1920s, the first radio stations were established by radio equipment manufacturers and retailers who offered programs in order to sell more radios to consumers. As time passed, many non-profit organizations followed suit in setting up their own radio stations, and included: schools, clubs and civic groups. [ 6 ] When the practice of sponsoring programs was popularised, each individual radio program was usually sponsored by a single business in exchange for a brief mention of the business' name at the beginning and end of the sponsored shows. However, radio station owners soon realised they could earn more money by selling sponsorship rights in small time allocations to multiple businesses throughout their radio station's broadcasts, rather than selling the sponsorship rights to single businesses per show.




A print advertisement for the 1913 issue of the Encyclopædia Britannica


This practice was carried over to television in the late 1940s and early 1950s. A fierce battle was fought between those seeking to commercialise the radio and people who argued that the radio spectrum should be considered a part of the commons – to be used only non-commercially and for the public good. The United Kingdom pursued a public funding model for the BBC, originally a private company, the British Broadcasting Company , but incorporated as a public body by Royal Charter in 1927. In Canada, advocates like Graham Spry were likewise able to persuade the federal government to adopt a public funding model, creating the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation . However, in the United States, the capitalist model prevailed with the passage of the Communications Act of 1934 which created the Federal Communications Commission . [ 6 ] To placate the socialists, the U.S. Congress did require commercial broadcasters to operate in the "public interest, convenience, and necessity". [ 7 ] Public broadcasting now exists in the United States due to the 1967 Public Broadcasting Act which led to the Public Broadcasting Service and National Public Radio .
In the early 1950s, the DuMont Television Network began the modern practice of selling advertisement time to multiple sponsors. Previously, DuMont had trouble finding sponsors for many of their programs and compensated by selling smaller blocks of advertising time to several businesses. This eventually became the standard for the commercial television industry in the United States. However, it was still a common practice to have single sponsor shows, such as The United States Steel Hour . In some instances the sponsors exercised great control over the content of the show—up to and including having one's advertising agency actually writing the show. The single sponsor model is much less prevalent now, a notable exception being the Hallmark Hall of Fame .
The 1960s saw advertising transform into a modern approach in which creativity was allowed to shine, producing unexpected messages that made advertisements more tempting to consumers' eyes. The Volkswagen ad campaign—featuring such headlines as " Think Small " and "Lemon" (which were used to describe the appearance of the car)—ushered in the era of modern advertising by promoting a "position" or "unique selling proposition" designed to associate each brand with a specific idea in the reader or viewer's mind. This period of American advertising is called the Creative Revolution and its archetype was William Bernbach who helped create the revolutionary Volkswagen ads among others. Some of the most creative and long-standing American advertising dates to this period.
The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the introduction of cable television and particularly MTV . Pioneering the concept of the music video , MTV ushered in a new type of advertising: the consumer tunes in for the advertising message, rather than it being a by-product or afterthought. As cable and satellite television became increasingly prevalent, specialty channels emerged, including channels entirely devoted to advertising , such as QVC , Home Shopping Network , and ShopTV Canada .
Marketing through the Internet opened new frontiers for advertisers and contributed to the " dot-com " boom of the 1990s. Entire corporations operated solely on advertising revenue, offering everything from coupons to free Internet access. At the turn of the 21st century, a number of websites including the search engine Google , started a change in online advertising by emphasizing contextually relevant, unobtrusive ads intended to help, rather than inundate, users. This has led to a plethora of similar efforts and an increasing trend of interactive advertising .
The share of advertising spending relative to GDP has changed little across large changes in media . For example, in the US in 1925, the main advertising media were newspapers, magazines, signs on streetcars , and outdoor posters . Advertising spending as a share of GDP was about 2.9 percent. By 1998, television and radio had become major advertising media. Nonetheless, advertising spending as a share of GDP was slightly lower—about 2.4 percent. [ 8 ]
A recent advertising innovation is " guerrilla marketing ", which involve unusual approaches such as staged encounters in public places, giveaways of products such as cars that are covered with brand messages, and interactive advertising where the viewer can respond to become part of the advertising message.Guerrilla advertising is becoming increasing more popular with a lot of companies. This type of advertising is unpredictable and innovative, which causes consumers to buy the product or idea. This reflects an increasing trend of interactive and "embedded" ads, such as via product placement , having consumers vote through text messages , and various innovations utilizing social network services such as MySpace .
Necessary skills
The scope of advertising has a lot of future to go because in present life the technology has been increased that much. The scope of advertising management mainly depends on the change in technology,for example now-a-days advertising can make a blender by increase the sale of onething to many people by publicity such publicity can create along sale and services towards the product used by them.
Public service advertising
The same advertising techniques used to promote commercial goods and services can be used to inform, educate and motivate the public about non-commercial issues, such as HIV/AIDS, political ideology, energy conservation and deforestation.
Advertising, in its non-commercial guise, is a powerful educational tool capable of reaching and motivating large audiences. "Advertising justifies its existence when used in the public interest—it is much too powerful a tool to use solely for commercial purposes." Attributed to Howard Gossage by David Ogilvy .
Public service advertising , non-commercial advertising , public interest advertising, cause marketing , and social marketing are different terms for (or aspects of) the use of sophisticated advertising and marketing communications techniques (generally associated with commercial enterprise) on behalf of non-commercial, public interest issues and initiatives.
In the United States, the granting of television and radio licenses by the FCC is contingent upon the station broadcasting a certain amount of public service advertising. To meet these requirements, many broadcast stations in America air the bulk of their required public service announcements during the late night or early morning when the smallest percentage of viewers are watching, leaving more day and prime time commercial slots available for high-paying advertisers.
Public service advertising reached its height during World Wars I and II under the direction of more than one government.
Marketing mix
The marketing mix has been the key concept to advertising. The marketing mix was suggested by Jeremy McCarthy, professor at Harvard Business School, in the 1960’s. The marketing mix consists of four basic elements called the four P’s Product is the first P representing the actual product. Price represents the process of determining the value of a product. Place represents the variables of getting the product to the consumer like distribution channels, market coverage and movement organization. The last P stands for Promotion which is the process of reaching the target market and convincing them to go out and buy the product.Geana, Mugur Valentin. [ 9 ]
Types of advertising




Paying people to hold signs is one of the oldest forms of advertising, as with this Human directional pictured above






A bus with an advertisement for GAP in Singapore. Buses and other vehicles are popular mediums for advertisers.






A DBAG Class 101 with UNICEF ads at Ingolstadt main railway station


Virtually any medium can be used for advertising. Commercial advertising media can include wall paintings , billboards , street furniture components, printed flyers and rack cards , radio, cinema and television adverts, web banners , mobile telephone screens, shopping carts, web popups , skywriting , bus stop benches, human billboards , magazines, newspapers, town criers, sides of buses, banners attached to or sides of airplanes (" logojets "), in-flight advertisements on seatback tray tables or overhead storage bins, taxicab doors, roof mounts and passenger screens , musical stage shows, subway platforms and trains, elastic bands on disposable diapers,doors of bathroom stalls,stickers on apples in supermarkets, shopping cart handles (grabertising), the opening section of streaming audio and video, posters, and the backs of event tickets and supermarket receipts. Any place an "identified" sponsor pays to deliver their message through a medium is advertising.
Digital advertising

Television advertising / Music in advertising
The TV commercial is generally considered the most effective mass-market advertising format, as is reflected by the high prices TV networks charge for commercial airtime during popular TV events. The annual Super Bowl football game in the United States is known as the most prominent advertising event on television. The average cost of a single thirty-second TV spot during this game has reached US$3 million (as of 2009). The majority of television commercials feature a song or jingle that listeners soon relate to the product. Virtual advertisements may be inserted into regular television programming through computer graphics. It is typically inserted into otherwise blank backdrops [ 10 ] or used to replace local billboards that are not relevant to the remote broadcast audience. [ 11 ] More controversially, virtual billboards may be inserted into the background [ 12 ] where none exist in real-life. This technique is especially used in televised sporting events [ 13 ] Virtual product placement is also possible. [ 14 ] [ 15 ]


Infomercials
An infomercial is a long-format television commercial, typically five minutes or longer. The word "infomercial" is a portmanteau of the words "information" & "commercial". The main objective in an infomercial is to create an impulse purchase , so that the consumer sees the presentation and then immediately buys the product through the advertised toll-free telephone number or website . Infomercials describe, display, and often demonstrate products and their features, and commonly have testimonials from consumers and industry professionals.


Radio advertising
Radio advertising is a form of advertising via the medium of radio . Radio advertisements are broadcasted as radio waves to the air from a transmitter to an antenna and a thus to a receiving device. Airtime is purchased from a station or network in exchange for airing the commercials. While radio has the obvious limitation of being restricted to sound, proponents of radio advertising often cite this as an advantage.


Online advertising
Online advertising is a form of promotion that uses the Internet and World Wide Web for the expressed purpose of delivering marketing messages to attract customers. Examples of online advertising include contextual ads that appear on search engine results pages , banner ads , in text ads , Rich Media Ads, Social network advertising , online classified advertising , advertising networks and e-mail marketing , including e-mail spam .


Product placements
Covert advertising, also known as guerrilla advertising, is when a product or brand is embedded in entertainment and media. For example, in a film, the main character can use an item or other of a definite brand, as in the movie Minority Report , where Tom Cruise 's character John Anderton owns a phone with the Nokia logo clearly written in the top corner, or his watch engraved with the Bulgari logo. Another example of advertising in film is in I, Robot , where main character played by Will Smith mentions his Converse shoes several times, calling them "classics," because the film is set far in the future. I, Robot and Spaceballs also showcase futuristic cars with the Audi and Mercedes-Benz logos clearly displayed on the front of the vehicles. Cadillac chose to advertise in the movie The Matrix Reloaded , which as a result contained many scenes in which Cadillac cars were used. Similarly, product placement for Omega Watches , Ford , VAIO , BMW and Aston Martin cars are featured in recent James Bond films, most notably Casino Royale . In " Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer ", the main transport vehicle shows a large Dodge logo on the front. Blade Runner includes some of the most obvious product placement; the whole film stops to show a Coca-Cola billboard.

Physical advertising

Press advertising
Press advertising describes advertising in a printed medium such as a newspaper , magazine , or trade journal . This encompasses everything from media with a very broad readership base, such as a major national newspaper or magazine, to more narrowly targeted media such as local newspapers and trade journals on very specialized topics. A form of press advertising is classified advertising , which allows private individuals or companies to purchase a small, narrowly targeted ad for a low fee advertising a product or service. There are several tips on making a print ad stand out more. The attached hyperlink will show you a youtube video about these tips Link label [ 16 ]


Billboard advertising: Billboards are large structures located in public places which display advertisements to passing pedestrians and motorists. Most often, they are located on main roads with a large amount of passing motor and pedestrian traffic; however, they can be placed in any location with large amounts of viewers, such as on mass transit vehicles and in stations, in shopping malls or office buildings, and in stadiums.





The RedEye newspaper advertised to its target market at North Avenue Beach with a sailboat billboard on Lake Michigan .



Mobile billboard advertising
Mobile billboards are generally vehicle mounted billboards or digital screens. These can be on dedicated vehicles built solely for carrying advertisements along routes preselected by clients, they can also be specially equipped cargo trucks or, in some cases, large banners strewn from planes. The billboards are often lighted; some being backlit , and others employing spotlights. Some billboard displays are static, while others change; for example, continuously or periodically rotating among a set of advertisements. Mobile displays are used for various situations in metropolitan areas throughout the world, including: Target advertising, One-day, and long-term campaigns, Conventions, Sporting events, Store openings and similar promotional events, and Big advertisements from smaller companies.


In-store advertising
In-store advertising is any advertisement placed in a retail store. It includes placement of a product in visible locations in a store, such as at eye level, at the ends of aisles and near checkout counters, eye-catching displays promoting a specific product, and advertisements in such places as shopping carts and in-store video displays.


Celebrity branding
This type of advertising focuses upon using celebrity power, fame, money, popularity to gain recognition for their products and promote specific stores or products. Advertisers often advertise their products, for example, when celebrities share their favorite products or wear clothes by specific brands or designers. Celebrities are often involved in advertising campaigns such as television or print adverts to advertise specific or general products. The use of celebrities to endorse a brand can have its downsides, however. One mistake by a celebrity can be detrimental to the public relations of a brand. For example, following his performance of eight gold medals at the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, China, swimmer Michael Phelps' contract with Kellogg's was terminated, as Kellogg's did not want to associate with him after he was photographed smoking marijuana.

Sales promotions
Sales promotions are another way to advertise. Sales promotions are double purposed because they are used to gather information about what type of customers you draw in and where they are, and to jumpstart sales. Sales promotions include things like contests and games, sweepstakes, product giveaways, samples coupons, loyalty programs, and discounts. The ultimate goal of sales promotions is to stimulate potential customers to action. [ 17 ]
Media and advertising approaches
Increasingly, other media are overtaking many of the "traditional" media such as television, radio and newspaper because of a shift toward consumer's usage of the Internet for news and music as well as devices like digital video recorders (DVRs) such as TiVo .
Advertising on the World Wide Web is a recent phenomenon. Prices of Web-based advertising space are dependent on the "relevance" of the surrounding web content and the traffic that the website receives.
Digital signage is poised to become a major mass media because of its ability to reach larger audiences for less money. Digital signage also offer the unique ability to see the target audience where they are reached by the medium. Technology advances has also made it possible to control the message on digital signage with much precision, enabling the messages to be relevant to the target audience at any given time and location which in turn, gets more response from the advertising. Digital signage is being successfully employed in supermarkets. [ 18 ] Another successful use of digital signage is in hospitality locations such as restaurants. [ 19 ] and malls. [ 20 ]
E-mail advertising is another recent phenomenon. Unsolicited bulk E-mail advertising is known as " e-mail spam ". Spam has been a problem for email users for many years.
Some companies have proposed placing messages or corporate logos on the side of booster rockets and the International Space Station . Controversy exists on the effectiveness of subliminal advertising (see mind control ), and the pervasiveness of mass messages (see propaganda ).
Unpaid advertising (also called "publicity advertising"), can provide good exposure at minimal cost. Personal recommendations ("bring a friend", "sell it"), spreading buzz, or achieving the feat of equating a brand with a common noun (in the United States, " Xerox " = " photocopier ", " Kleenex " = tissue , " Vaseline " = petroleum jelly , " Hoover " = vacuum cleaner , " Nintendo " (often used by those exposed to many video games) = video games , and " Band-Aid " = adhesive bandage ) — these can be seen as the pinnacle of any advertising campaign. However, some companies oppose the use of their brand name to label an object. Equating a brand with a common noun also risks turning that brand into a genericized trademark - turning it into a generic term which means that its legal protection as a trademark is lost.
As the mobile phone became a new mass media in 1998 when the first paid downloadable content appeared on mobile phones in Finland, it was only a matter of time until mobile advertising followed, also first launched in Finland in 2000. By 2007 the value of mobile advertising had reached $2.2 billion and providers such as Admob delivered billions of mobile ads.
More advanced mobile ads include banner ads, coupons, Multimedia Messaging Service picture and video messages, advergames and various engagement marketing campaigns. A particular feature driving mobile ads is the 2D Barcode , which replaces the need to do any typing of web addresses, and uses the camera feature of modern phones to gain immediate access to web content. 83 percent of Japanese mobile phone users already are active users of 2D barcodes.
A new form of advertising that is growing rapidly is social network advertising . It is online advertising with a focus on social networking sites. This is a relatively immature market, but it has shown a lot of promise as advertisers are able to take advantage of the demographic information the user has provided to the social networking site. Friendertising is a more precise advertising term in which people are able to direct advertisements toward others directly using social network service .
From time to time, The CW Television Network airs short programming breaks called "Content Wraps," to advertise one company's product during an entire commercial break. The CW pioneered "content wraps" and some products featured were Herbal Essences , Crest , Guitar Hero II , CoverGirl , and recently Toyota .
Recently, there appeared a new promotion concept, " ARvertising ", advertising on Augmented Reality technology.
Current trends
Rise in new media
With the dawn of the Internet came many new advertising opportunities. Popup, Flash , banner , Popunder, advergaming , and email advertisements (the last often being a form of spam) are now commonplace. Particularly since the rise of "entertaining" advertising, some people may like an advertisement enough to wish to watch it later or show a friend. In general, the advertising community has not yet made this easy, although some have used the Internet to widely distribute their ads to anyone willing to see or hear them. In the last three quarters of 2009 mobile and internet advertising grew by 18.1% and 9.2% respectively. Older media advertising saw declines: −10.1% (TV), −11.7% (radio), −14.8% (magazines) and −18.7% (newspapers ).
Niche marketing
Another significant trend regarding future of advertising is the growing importance of the niche market using niche or targeted ads. Also brought about by the Internet and the theory of The Long Tail , advertisers will have an increasing ability to reach specific audiences. In the past, the most efficient way to deliver a message was to blanket the largest mass market audience possible. However, usage tracking, customer profiles and the growing popularity of niche content brought about by everything from blogs to social networking sites, provide advertisers with audiences that are smaller but much better defined, leading to ads that are more relevant to viewers and more effective for companies' marketing products. Among others, Comcast Spotlight is one such advertiser employing this method in their video on demand menus. These advertisements are targeted to a specific group and can be viewed by anyone wishing to find out more about a particular business or practice at any time, right from their home. This causes the viewer to become proactive and actually choose what advertisements they want to view. [ 21 ]
Crowdsourcing
The concept of crowdsourcing has given way to the trend of user-generated advertisements. User-generated ads are created by consumers as opposed to an advertising agency or the company themselves, most often they are a result of brand sponsored advertising competitions. For the 2007 Super Bowl , the Frito-Lays division of PepsiCo held the Crash the Super Bowl contest, allowing consumers to create their own Doritos commercial. [ 22 ] Chevrolet held a similar competition for their Tahoe line of SUVs. [ 22 ] Due to the success of the Doritos user-generated ads in the 2007 Super Bowl, Frito-Lays relaunched the competition for the 2009 and 2010 Super Bowl. The resulting ads were among the most-watched and most-liked Super Bowl ads. In fact, the winning ad that aired in the 2009 Super Bowl was ranked by the USA Today Super Bowl Ad Meter as the top ad for the year while the winning ads that aired in the 2010 Super Bowl were found by Nielsen's BuzzMetrics to be the "most buzzed-about". [ 23 ] [ 24 ]
This trend has given rise to several online platforms that host user-generated advertising competitions on behalf of a company. Founded in 2007, Zooppa has launched ad competitions for brands such as Google , Nike , Hershey’s , General Mills , Microsoft , NBC Universal , Zinio , and Mini Cooper . Crowdsourced advertisements have gained popularity in part to its cost effective nature, high consumer engagement, and ability to generate word-of-mouth. However, it remains controversial, as the long-term impact on the advertising industry is still unclear. [ 25 ]
Criticisms
Main article: Criticism of advertising
Regulation
Main article: Advertising regulation
In the US many communities believe that many forms of outdoor advertising blight the public realm. [ 26 ] As long ago as the 1960s in the US there were attempts to ban billboard advertising in the open countryside. [ 27 ] Cities such as São Paulo have introduced an outright ban [ 28 ] with London also having specific legislation to control unlawful displays.
There have been increasing efforts to protect the public interest by regulating the content and the influence of advertising. Some examples are: the ban on television tobacco advertising imposed in many countries, and the total ban of advertising to children under 12 imposed by the Swedish government in 1991. Though that regulation continues in effect for broadcasts originating within the country, it has been weakened by the European Court of Justice , which had found that Sweden was obliged to accept foreign programming, including those from neighboring countries or via satellite. Greece’s regulations are of a similar nature, “banning advertisements for children's toys between 7 am and 10 pm and a total ban on advertisement for war toys". [ 29 ]
In Europe and elsewhere, there is a vigorous debate on whether (or how much) advertising to children should be regulated. This debate was exacerbated by a report released by the Kaiser Family Foundation in February 2004 which suggested fast food advertising that targets children was an important factor in the epidemic of childhood obesity in the United States.
In New Zealand, South Africa, Canada, and many European countries, the advertising industry operates a system of self-regulation. Advertisers, advertising agencies and the media agree on a code of advertising standards that they attempt to uphold. The general aim of such codes is to ensure that any advertising is 'legal, decent, honest and truthful'. Some self-regulatory organizations are funded by the industry, but remain independent, with the intent of upholding the standards or codes like the Advertising Standards Authority in the UK.
In the UK most forms of outdoor advertising such as the display of billboards is regulated by the UK Town and County Planning system. Currently the display of an advertisement without consent from the Planning Authority is a criminal offense liable to a fine of £2,500 per offence. All of the major outdoor billboard companies in the UK have convictions of this nature.
Naturally, many advertisers view governmental regulation or even self-regulation as intrusion of their freedom of speech or a necessary evil. Therefore, they employ a wide-variety of linguistic devices to bypass regulatory laws (e.g. printing English words in bold and French translations in fine print to deal with the Article 120 of the 1994 Toubon Law limiting the use of English in French advertising). [ 30 ] The advertisement of controversial products such as cigarettes and condoms are subject to government regulation in many countries. For instance, the tobacco industry is required by law in most countries to display warnings cautioning consumers about the health hazards of their products. Linguistic variation is often used by advertisers as a creative device to reduce the impact of such requirements.
Future of advertising
Global advertising
Advertising has gone through five major stages of development: domestic, export, international, multi-national, and global. For global advertisers , there are four, potentially competing, business objectives that must be balanced when developing worldwide advertising: building a brand while speaking with one voice, developing economies of scale in the creative process, maximising local effectiveness of ads, and increasing the company’s speed of implementation. Born from the evolutionary stages of global marketing are the three primary and fundamentally different approaches to the development of global advertising executions: exporting executions, producing local executions, and importing ideas that travel. [ 31 ]
Advertising research is key to determining the success of an ad in any country or region. The ability to identify which elements and/or moments of an ad that contributes to its success is how economies of scale are maximised. Once one knows what works in an ad, that idea or ideas can be imported by any other market. Market research measures, such as Flow of Attention , Flow of Emotion and branding moments provide insight into what is working in an ad in any country or region because the measures are based on the visual, not verbal, elements of the ad. [ 32 ]
Diversification
In the realm of advertising agencies , continued industry diversification has seen observers note that “big global clients don't need big global agencies any more”. [ 33 ] This is reflected by the growth of non-traditional agencies in various global markets, such as Canadian business TAXI and SMART in Australia and has been referred to as "a revolution in the ad world". [ 34 ]
New technology
The ability to record shows on digital video recorders (such as TiVo) allow users to record the programs for later viewing, enabling them to fast forward through commercials. Additionally, as more seasons of pre-recorded box sets are offered for sale of television programs ; fewer people watch the shows on TV. However, the fact that these sets are sold , means the company will receive additional profits from the sales of these sets. To counter this effect, many advertisers have opted for product placement on TV shows like Survivor .
Advertising education
Advertising education has become widely popular with bachelor, master and doctorate degrees becoming available in the emphasis. A surge in advertising interest is typically attributed to the strong relationship advertising plays in cultural and technological changes, such as the advance of online social networking. A unique model for teaching advertising is the student-run advertising agency , where advertising students create campaigns for real companies. [ 35 ] Organizations such as American Advertising Federation and AdU Network partner established companies with students to create these campaigns.
Advertising research
Main article: Advertising research
Advertising research is a specialized form of research that works to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of advertising. It entails numerous forms of research which employ different methodologies. Advertising research includes pre-testing (also known as copy testing ) and post-testing of ads and/or campaigns—pre-testing is done before an ad airs to gauge how well it will perform and post-testing is done after an ad airs to determine the in-market impact of the ad or campaign on the consumer. Continuous ad tracking and the Communicus System are competing examples of post-testing advertising research types.
Evidence-based advertising
Evidence-based advertising refers to advertising principles, which have been proven through experimental studies. [ citation needed ] They can be applied to an advertising campaign with high confidence of increasing persuasiveness regardless of time and place. Principles are usually accompanied with various conditions, which must be taken into consideration when applying them. According to Professor J. Scott Armstrong from The Wharton School, evidence-based principles “draw upon typical practice, expert opinion, factual evidence and empirical evidence.” [ 36 ]
See also




Business and economics portal







Advertising Adstock
Advertising to children
American Advertising Federation Hall of Fame
Branded content
Classified advertising
Communication design
Conquesting
Coolhunting
Copy testing
Copywriting
Crowd manipulation
Graphic design




Informative advertising
Integrated Marketing Communications
Local advertising
Market overhang
Meta-advertising
Mobile Marketing
Performance-based advertising
Pseudo-event
Psychological manipulation
Public relations
Reality marketing




Senior media creative
SEO Copywriting
Sex in advertising
Shock advertising
Tobacco advertising
Video commerce
Video news release
Viral marketing
Visual communication
Web analytics
World Federation of Advertisers

infomercials

infomercials

Infomercials are long-format television commercials , typically five minutes or longer. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Infomercials are also known as paid programming (or teleshopping in Europe ). This phenomenon started in the United States where infomercials were typically shown overnight (usually 2:00 a.m. to 6:00 a.m.)--outside of peak hours . Some television stations chose to air infomercials as an alternative to the former practice of sign-off . By 2009, most US infomercial spending is during early morning, daytime, and evening hours. Stations in most countries around the world have instituted similar media structures. According to tapebeat.com, over $150 billion of consumer products in the U.S. are sold through infomercials.
The term "infomercial" is sometimes misapplied and used to refer to direct response television advertisements ( DRTV ) of 60 to 120 seconds in length. [ 4 ] However, the term describes program length advertisements which, in the US, are typically 28 minutes and 30 seconds in length (see above references). In the US, DRTV advertisements of 30 seconds to 2 minutes in length are typically called "short form" or "DRTV spots" and are not included in the advertising industry's use of the term "infomercial". Note that in the US market, a small amount of media can be purchased for 5 minute length advertisements, although this time is quite limited. Outside of the US market, lengths depend on the lengths allowed by television stations and government regulators.
While the term "infomercial" was originally applied only to television advertising, it is now sometimes used to refer to any presentation (often on video) which presents a significant amount of information in an actual, or perceived, attempt to persuade to a point of view. When used this way, the term may be meant to carry an implication that the party making the communication is exaggerating truths or hiding important facts. Often, it is unclear whether the actual presentation fits this definition because the term is used in an attempt to dis-credit the presentation. In this way, political speeches may be derogatorily referred to as "infomercials" for a specific point of view.




Contents


1 Format
2 History
3 Criticism and legal issues
4 Parodies
5 Other uses and definitions

5.1 Political infomercials
5.2 2008 Presidential Campaign Use
5.3 Children's programming


6 Infomercial companies
7 Use of infomercials around the world
8 See also
9 Notes





//

Format
The word "infomercial" is a portmanteau of the words " information " and " commercial ". As in any other form of advertisement, the content is a commercial message designed to represent the viewpoints and to serve the interest of the sponsor. Infomercials are often made to closely resemble actual television programming. Some imitate talk shows and try to downplay the fact that the program is actually an advertisement. A few are developed around storylines and have been called "storymercials". However most do not have specific formats but craft different elements to create what they hope is a compelling story about the product offered.
Infomercials are designed to solicit a direct response which is specific and quantifiable and are, therefore, a form of direct response marketing (not to be confused with direct marketing ). For this reason, infomercials generally feature between 2 and 4 internal commercials of 30 to 120 seconds in length which invite the consumer to call or take other direct action. Despite the overt request for direct action, many consumers respond to the messages in an infomercial with purchases at retail outlets. For many infomercials, the largest portion of positive response they aim for is retail sales. These retail sales make infomercials similar in impact to traditional commercials where advertisers do not solicit a direct response from viewers, but create the commercials with a goal to leave behind messages and brand that the advertisers hope will lead people to purchase their product or increase acceptance of the product.
Many traditional Infomercial producers make use of flashy catchphrases , repeat basic ideas, and/or employ scientist-like characters or celebrities as guests or hosts in their ad. The book As Seen on TV (Quirk Books) by Lou Harry and Sam Stall highlights the history of products as the Flowbee , the Chia Pet , and Ginsu knives. Sometimes traditional infomercials use limited time offers and/or claim one can only purchase the wares from television to add pressure for viewers buy their products. The products frequently marketed through infomericals include cleaning products, appliances, food, dietary supplements, alternative health aids, memory improvement courses, books, recorded music, videos, real estate investment strategies, beauty supplies, baldness remedies, sexual enhancement supplements, weight loss products, personal fitness devices, home exercise machines.
Major brands (e.g. Apple, [ 5 ] Microsoft, Thermos-Grill2Go [ 6 ] ) have used infomercials for their ability to communicate more complicated and in-depth product stories. This practice started in the early 1990s and has increased since. Brands generally eschew the "cheesy" trappings of the traditional infomercial business in order to create communication they believe creates a better image of their products, their brands, and their consumers.
History
During the early days of television, many TV shows were specifically created by sponsors with the main goal of selling their product, with the entertainment just used to hold the audience. A good example of this is the early children's show The Magic Clown on NBC , which was created essentially as an advertisement for Bonomo's Turkish Taffy . [ 7 ] It is claimed that the first informercial for a commercial product appeared in 1949 or 1950, for a blender . Accounts vary on whether this was for a VitaMix blender as claimed by Vitamix or from Waring Blenders as claimed in various online sources. Eventually, FCC limits on the amount of advertising that could appear during an hour of television did away with these programs, forcing sponsors into the background; however, few infomercials, mainly those for greatest hits record sets and Shop Smith power tools, did exist during the period when commercial time was restricted. [ citation needed ]
It is quite possible that the first modern infomercial series which ran in North America was on San Diego -area television station XETV , which during the 1970s ran a one-hour television program every Sunday consisting of advertisements for local homes for sale. As the station was actually licensed by the Mexican government to the city of Tijuana , (but the station broadcasts all of its programs in English for the U.S. market), the FCC limit at that time of a maximum of 18 minutes of commercials in an hour did not apply to the station.
Infomercials proliferated in the United States after 1984 when the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) eliminated regulations that were established in the 1950s and 1960s to govern the commercial content of television. [ citation needed ] . Informercials particularly exploded in the mid-1990s with motivational products, personal development products, and infamous " get-rich-quick scheme "s based on the premise that one could quickly become wealthy by either selling anything through classified ads or through real estate flipping . These were hawked by personalities such as Don Lapre and Carleton H. Sheets , among others.
In the UK, "admags" (advertisement magazines) were originally a feature of the regional commercial ITV stations from launch in 1955 but were banned in 1963. The word 'teleshopping' was coined in 1979 by Michael Aldrich who invented real-time transaction processing from a domestic television and subsequently installed many systems throughout the UK in the 1980s. [ 8 ] This would now be referred to as online shopping . In the 1989, the Satellite Shop was the launched as the first UK shopping channel. Shortly afterwards, infomercials began on satellite television and they became known as teleshopping . [ 9 ] The UK permits neither paid infomercials nor teleshopping on mainstream network television. Political infomercials known as 'Party Political Broadcasts' are allocated to political parties according to a formula approved by Parliament and are available only on mainstream radio/network television, are strictly limited and are free of charge. Political parties or politically-motivated interest groups cannot buy advertising on UK TV. There is no prescription drug advertising because, with the single provider health system in the UK, there is only a single buyer for the whole country. Most auto advertising on TV is by manufacturers, however some are from local dealers. There are no televangelists.
Some US televangelists such as Robert Tilton and Peter Popoff buy television time from infomercial brokers representing TV stations around the U.S. and even some mass-distributed cable networks that are not averse to carrying religious programming . A block of such programming appears weekdays on BET under the umbrella title BET Inspiration . Politicians are also known to buy infomercial-length time blocks, as detailed below .
When they first appeared, infomercials were most often screened in the United States and Canada during late-night/early morning hours. As stations have found value in airing at other times, by 2008 a large portion of infomercial spending is early morning, daytime, early prime and even prime time . There are also entire networks devoted to just airing infomercials all day and night for the sole purpose of cable/satellite providers receiving revenue from the channel operator from any sales for their area, or to fill empty time on local programming channels. CNBC , which airs only one hour of infomercials nightly during the business week, airs up to 28 hours of infomercials on Saturdays and Sundays during the time where the network's business news coverage otherwise airs. A comparison of television listings from 2007 with 1987 verifies that many broadcasters in North America now air infomercials in lieu of syndicated TV series reruns and movies, which were formerly staples during the more common hours infomercials are broadcast (i.e., the overnight hours). Infomercials are a near-permanent staple of ION Television 's daytime and overnight schedules; multichannel providers such as DirecTV have objected in the past to carrying ION feeds which consist largely of paid programming. [ 10 ]
During the current financial crisis , many struggling individual television stations have devoted more of their programming schedules to infomercials and have reduced syndication contracts for regular programming. These stations have found that the revenue from infomercial time sales were higher than the revenues possible through the traditional television advertising and syndication sales options.




An example of a synopsis of an infomercial within an electronic program guide (in this case, an infomercial about colon detox on The Travel Channel , from Charter Communications ); guidelines which previously excluded specific program information for an infomercial have been relaxed by guide providers in the last few years


A feature length documentary that chronicles the history of the infomercial is Pitch People .
In 2008 [ citation needed ] , Tribune Media Services and Gemstar-TV Guide began to relax the guidelines for listing infomercials within their electronic program guide listings. Previously all infomercials were listed under the title "Paid Programming" (except for exceptions listed below), but now infomercial producers are allowed to submit a title and limited synopsis (phone numbers/websites to order a product/service seem to be disallowed) of the program's content to the listings providers.
The Fox Broadcasting Company announced that beginning in January 2009, all of its Saturday morning cartoon programming would be cancelled due to a compensation/distribution dispute with provider 4Kids Entertainment , which was replaced by a two-hour block of infomercials, Weekend Marketplace . [ 11 ] This made Fox the first major network (excluding borderline Ion Television ) to carry a schedule of paid programming. However, many local stations already utilize Saturday morning slots to air locally-programmed paid programming or programs such as Video Car Lot , which features one dealer presenting their current selection of pre-owned vehicles to encourage customers to visit their lot, or "home tour" programming where a home builder records a tour of a model home to entice homebuyers to purchase a plot in their subdivisions . Some stations opted to use the extra time on Saturday morning for E/I programming, with infomercials relegated to before or after the block, or even limited to afternoons, if local newscasts are shown earlier.
Criticism and legal issues
In the United States, because of the sometimes sensational nature of the ad form and the questionable nature of some products, consumer advocates recommend careful investigation of the infomercial's sponsor, [ 12 ] the product being advertised, and the claims being made before making a purchase. At the beginning of an infomercial, stations and/or sponsors normally run disclaimers warning that "the following program is a paid advertisement," and that the station does not necessarily support the sponsor's claims. (See "External Links" for two such examples.) A few stations take the warning further, encouraging viewers to contact their local Better Business Bureau or state or local consumer protection agency to report any questionable products or claims that air on such infomercials. Some channels, such as CNBC , include a "paid programming" bug in a corner of the screen during the duration of each infomercial on that channel. Others, particularly smaller networks such as RFD-TV , have publicly disavowed infomercials and have refused to air them.
The FTC requires that any infomercial 15 minutes or longer must disclose to viewers that it is a paid advertisement. An infomercial is required to be "clearly and conspicuously" marked as a "paid advertisement for [particular product or service], sponsored by [sponsor]" at the beginning and end of the advertisement and before ordering instructions are displayed. [ 13 ]
Considerable FTC scrutiny is also given to results claims like those in diet/weight loss advertisements. They especially focus on the gray areas surrounding claims stated by "testimonials" because the producer's choice to include a specific testimonial is an action as intentional as writing a scripted claim. The rules controlling endorsements are modified from time to time to increase consumer protection and fill loop holes. [ 14 ] Industry organizations like the Electronic Retailing Association, who represents infomercial marketers, often try to minimize the impact of these rule changes. [ 15 ]
Since the 1990s, federal and/or state consumer protection agencies have either successfully sued or been critical of several prominent informercial pitchmen, including Kevin Trudeau , Donald Barrett , and Matthew Lesko .
Parodies
The Infomercial format has been widely parodied. One example was a skit in the cartoon series Tiny Toon Adventures in which an infomercial hostess is trying to sell a clothesline for $39.95, but has to include additional offers to try to justify the high price. Another example could be found in the Garfield and Friends episode, "Dream Giveaway", in which Garfield dreams of attempting to give away Nermal in an infomercial, but no one wants to take him. In the 2003 live-action film The Cat in the Hat , the cat performs an entire talkshow-style infomercial spoof for a magical (but disastrous) cupcake maker. In the spoof, the Cat plays the roles of host and guest/expert. Yet another example can be found in The Lion King 1 1/2 when Pumbaa sits on the remote in mid-movie and the screen switches to a jewelry infomercial ( QVC ). Quebec-based Têtes à Claques has produced several Informercial parodies in French. The comedy duo Tim Heidecker and Eric Wareheim have produced several infomercial parody segments that are showcased on their oddball comedy show Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job! , notably one for a CD-ROM-based version of the internet called the " Innernette ". It employs many of the cliched infomercial hallmarks and phrases such as enthausiastic demonstrations, and outlandish claims of user satisfaction.
"Weird Al" Yankovic parodied infomercials in the song Mr. Popeil , a homage to inventor and infomercial spokesperson Ron Popeil , on his 1984 album "Weird Al" Yankovic in 3-D (Popeil himself used the song in some of his infomercials). Well known pitchmen like Popeil and Billy Mays have been the inspiration for many of these parodies. A well known early parody on TV was Saturday Night Live's "Bassomatic" skit featuring Dan Aykroyd in the 1970s. [ 16 ]
Other uses and definitions
Political infomercials
In the United States the strategy of buying prime-time programming slots on major networks has been utilized by political candidates for both presidential and state office to present infomercial-like programs to sell a candidate's merits to the public. Fringe presidential candidate Lyndon LaRouche regularly bought time on CBS and local stations in the 1980s. In the 1990s Ross Perot also bought network time in 1992 and 1996 to present his presidential policies to the public. The National Rifle Association has also aired programs via paid programming time to present their views on issues such as gun control and other issues while appealing to the public to join their organization.
2008 Presidential Campaign Use
Hillary Clinton bought an hour of primetime on the Hallmark Channel in 2008 before Super Tuesday , and on cable sports network FSN Southwest in Texas before that state's primary to present a town hall-like program. Barack Obama 's 2008 presidential campaign has used infomercials extensively. His campaign established the Obama channel on satellite TV networks throughout the campaign season. And, a week before the 2008 general election presidential candidate Barack Obama bought a 30 minute slot at 8 PM ET/PT during primetime on seven major networks ( NBC , CBS , MSNBC , Fox , BET , TV One and Univision (with Spanish subtitles)) to present a "closing argument" to his campaign. The combination of these networks reportedly drew a peak audience of over 33 million viewers of this half hour program, making it the single most watched infomercial broadcast in the history of U.S. television. [ 17 ]
Children's programming
Although not meeting the definition of an infomercial per se, animated children's programming in the 1980s and early 1990s, which included half-hour animated series for franchises such as Transformers , My Little Pony , Go-Bots and Bravestarr were often described by media experts and parents derisive of these types of series as the equivalent of infomercials, as they also sold the tie-in toy lines and food products for the shows within commercials. The Children's Television Act of 1990 was instrumental in ending this practice and setting commercial limits. Currently, any advertisement for a tie-in product within the show is considered a violation of the FCC rules and is considered a "program length commercial" by their standards, putting the station at risk of paying large fines for violations. These regulations do not apply to cable networks.
Infomercial companies
Traditional infomercial marketers source the products, pay to develop the infomercials, pay for the media, and are responsible for all sales of the product. Sometimes, they sell products they source from inventors.
There is also a well developed network of suppliers to the infomercial industry. These suppliers generally choose to focus on either traditional infomercials (hard sell approaches) or on using infomercials as advertising/sales channels for brand companies (branded approaches). In the traditional business, services are usually supplied by infomercial producers or by media buying companies. In the brand infomercial business, services are often provided by full service agencies who deliver strategy, creative, production, media, and campaign services.
Use of infomercials around the world
The infomercial industry was started in the United States and that has led to the specific definitions of infomercials as direct response television commercials of specific lengths (:30, :60, :120 seconds; 5 minutes; or 28 minutes and 30 seconds). Infomercials have spread to other countries from the US. However, the term "infomercial" needs to be defined more universally to discuss use in all countries. In general, worldwide use of the term refers to a television commercial (paid programming) that offers product for direct sale to consumer via response through the web, by phone, or by mail.
There are few structures that apply everywhere in the international infomercial business. The regulatory environment in each country as well as that country's television traditions have led to variations in format, lengths, and rules for long form commercials and television commercials selling direct to consumer. For example, in the early 1990s long form paid programming in Canada was required to consist only of photographs without moving video. (This restriction no longer exists).
Many products which started in the US have been taken into international distribution on television. And, each country has local entrepreneurs and marketers using the medium for local businesses. What may be called infomercials are most commonly found in North and South America, Europe, Eastern Europe, Japan, and Southeast Asia.
In many countries, the infrastructure of direct response television distributors, telemarketing companies and product fulfillment companies (shipping, customer service) are more difficult and these missing pieces have limited the spread of the infomercial.
See also

Advertising
Advertorial
Brokered programming
Direct response television
Informative advertising
Marketing
Sponsored film
Television advertisement

event video

event video

marketing tools

marketing tools

Marketing is the process by which companies create customer interest in products or services. It generates the strategy that underlies sales techniques, business communication, and business development. [ 1 ] It is an integrated process through which companies build strong customer relationships and create value for their customers and for themselves. [ 1 ]
Marketing is used to identify the customer , to keep the customer , and to satisfy the customer. With the customer as the focus of its activities, it can be concluded that marketing management is one of the major components of business management . Marketing evolved to meet the stasis in developing new markets caused by mature markets and overcapacities in the last 2-3 centuries. [ citation needed ] The adoption of marketing strategies requires businesses to shift their focus from production to the perceived needs and wants of their customers as the means of staying profitable . [ citation needed ]
The term marketing concept holds that achieving organizational goals depends on knowing the needs and wants of target markets and delivering the desired satisfactions. [ 2 ] It proposes that in order to satisfy its organizational objectives, an organization should anticipate the needs and wants of consumers and satisfy these more effectively than competitors. [ 2 ]




Contents


1 Further definitions
2 Evolution of marketing

2.1 Earlier approaches
2.2 Contemporary approaches


3 Customer orientation

3.1 Organizational orientation
3.2 Herd behavior
3.3 Further orientations


4 Marketing research

4.1 Marketing environment
4.2 Market segmentation
4.3 Types of marketing research


5 Marketing planning

5.1 Marketing strategy


6 Marketing specializations
7 Buying behaviour

7.1 B2C buying behaviour
7.2 B2B buying behaviour


8 Use of technologies
9 Services marketing
10 See also
11 References





//

Further definitions
Marketing is defined by the American Marketing Association ( AMA ) as "the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large." [ 3 ] The term developed from the original meaning which referred literally to going to a market to buy or sell goods or services. Seen from a systems point of view, sales process engineering views marketing as "a set of processes that are interconnected and interdependent with other functions, [ 4 ] whose methods can be improved using a variety of relatively new approaches."
The Chartered Institute of Marketing defines marketing as "the management process responsible for identifying, anticipating and satisfying customer requirements profitably." [ 5 ] A different concept is the value-based marketing which states the role of marketing to contribute to increasing shareholder value . [ 6 ] In this context, marketing is defined as "the management process that seeks to maximise returns to shareholders by developing relationships with valued customers and creating a competitive advantage." [ 6 ]
Marketing practice tended to be seen as a creative industry in the past, which included advertising , distribution and selling . However, because the academic study of marketing makes extensive use of social sciences , psychology , sociology , mathematics , economics , anthropology and neuroscience , the profession is now widely recognized as a science, allowing numerous universities to offer Master-of-Science (MSc) programmes. The overall process starts with marketing research and goes through market segmentation , business planning and execution, ending with pre and post-sales promotional activities. It is also related to many of the creative arts. The marketing literature is also adept at re-inventing itself and its vocabulary according to the times and the culture.
Evolution of marketing
Main article: History of marketing
An orientation, in the marketing context, relates to a perception or attitude a firm holds towards its product or service, essentially concerning consumers and end-users. Throughout history marketing has changed considerably as consumer tastes are changing faster. [ 7 ]
Earlier approaches
The marketing orientation evolved from earlier orientations namely the production orientation, the product orientation and the selling orientation. [ 7 ] [ 8 ]


Orientation
Profit driver
Western European timeframe



Production [ 8 ]
Production methods
until the 1950s
A firm focusing on a production orientation specializes in producing as much as possible of a given product or service. Thus, this signifies a firm exploiting economies of scale , until the minimum efficient scale is reached. A production orientation may be deployed when a high demand for a product or service exists, coupled with a good certainty that consumer tastes do not rapidly alter (similar to the sales orientation).


Product [ 8 ]
Quality of the product
until the 1960s
A firm employing a product orientation is chiefly concerned with the quality of its own product. A firm would also assume that as long as its product was of a high standard, people would buy and consume the product.


Selling [ 8 ]
Selling methods
1950s and 1960s
A firm using a sales orientation focuses primarily on the selling/promotion of a particular product, and not determining new consumer desires as such. Consequently, this entails simply selling an already existing product, and using promotion techniques to attain the highest sales possible.
Such an orientation may suit scenarios in which a firm holds dead stock, or otherwise sells a product that is in high demand, with little likelihood of changes in consumer tastes diminishing demand.



Marketing [ 8 ]
Needs and wants of customers
1970 to present day
The ' marketing orientation' is perhaps the most common orientation used in contemporary marketing. It involves a firm essentially basing its marketing plans around the marketing concept, and thus supplying products to suit new consumer tastes. As an example, a firm would employ market research to gauge consumer desires, use R&D to develop a product attuned to the revealed information, and then utilize promotion techniques to ensure persons know the product exists.


Contemporary approaches
Recent approaches in marketing is the relationship marketing with focus on the customer, the business marketing or industrial marketing with focus on an organization or institution and the social marketing with focus on benefits to the society. [ 9 ] New forms of marketing also use the internet and are therefore called internet marketing or more generally e-marketing , online marketing , search engine marketing, desktop advertising or affiliate marketing . It tries to perfect the segmentation strategy used in traditional marketing. It targets its audience more precisely, and is sometimes called personalized marketing or one-to-one marketing.


Orientation
Profit driver
Western European timeframe



Relationship marketing / Relationship management [ 9 ]
Building and keeping good customer relations
1960s to present day
Emphasis is placed on the whole relationship between suppliers and customers. The aim is to give the best possible attention, customer services and therefore build customer loyalty.


Business marketing / Industrial marketing
Building and keeping relationships between organizations
1980s to present day
In this context marketing takes place between businesses or organizations . The product focus lies on industrial goods or capital goods than consumer products or end products. A different form of marketing activities like promotion, advertising and communication to the customer is used.


Social marketing [ 9 ]
Benefit to society
1990s to present day
Similar characteristics as marketing orientation but with the added proviso that there will be a curtailment on any harmful activities to society, in either product, production, or selling methods.


Customer orientation
A firm in the market economy survives by producing goods that persons are willing and able to buy. Consequently, ascertaining consumer demand is vital for a firm 's future viability and even existence as a going concern . Many companies today have a customer focus (or market orientation). This implies that the company focuses its activities and products on consumer demands. Generally there are three ways of doing this: the customer-driven approach, the sense of identifying market changes and the product innovation approach.
In the consumer-driven approach, consumer wants are the drivers of all strategic marketing decisions. No strategy is pursued until it passes the test of consumer research. Every aspect of a market offering, including the nature of the product itself, is driven by the needs of potential consumers. The starting point is always the consumer. The rationale for this approach is that there is no point spending R&D funds developing products that people will not buy. History attests to many products that were commercial failures in spite of being technological breakthroughs. [ 10 ]
A formal approach to this customer-focused marketing is known as SIVA [ 11 ] (Solution, Information, Value, Access). This system is basically the four Ps renamed and reworded to provide a customer focus. The SIVA Model provides a demand/customer centric version alternative to the well-known 4Ps supply side model (product, price, placement, promotion) of marketing management.


Product
→
Solution


Promotion
→
Information


Price
→
Value


Placement
→
Access


If any of the 4Ps had a problem or were not there in the marketing factor of the business, the business could be in trouble and so other companies may appear in the surroundings of the company, so the consumer demand on its products will become less.
Organizational orientation
In this sense, a firm's marketing department is often seen as of prime importance within the functional level of an organization. Information from an organization's marketing department would be used to guide the actions of other departments within the firm. As an example, a marketing department could ascertain (via marketing research) that consumers desired a new type of product, or a new usage for an existing product. With this in mind, the marketing department would inform the R&D department to create a prototype of a product/service based on consumers' new desires.
The production department would then start to manufacture the product, while the marketing department would focus on the promotion, distribution, pricing, etc. of the product. Additionally, a firm's finance department would be consulted, with respect to securing appropriate funding for the development, production and promotion of the product. Inter-departmental conflicts may occur, should a firm adhere to the marketing orientation. Production may oppose the installation, support and servicing of new capital stock, which may be needed to manufacture a new product. Finance may oppose the required capital expenditure, since it could undermine a healthy cash flow for the organization.
Herd behavior
Herd behavior in marketing is used to explain the dependencies of customers' mutual behavior. The Economist reported a recent conference in Rome on the subject of the simulation of adaptive human behavior. [ 12 ] It shared mechanisms to increase impulse buying and get people "to buy more by playing on the herd instinct." The basic idea is that people will buy more of products that are seen to be popular, and several feedback mechanisms to get product popularity information to consumers are mentioned, including smart card technology and the use of Radio Frequency Identification Tag technology. A "swarm-moves" model was introduced by a Florida Institute of Technology researcher, which is appealing to supermarkets because it can "increase sales without the need to give people discounts."Other recent studies on the "power of social influence" include an "artificial music market in which some 14,000 people downloaded previously unknown songs" ( Columbia University , New York); a Japanese chain of convenience stores which orders its products based on "sales data from department stores and research companies;" a Massachusetts company exploiting knowledge of social networking to improve sales; and online retailers who are increasingly informing consumers about "which products are popular with like-minded consumers" (e.g., Amazon , eBay ).
Further orientations

An emerging area of study and practice concerns internal marketing , or how employees are trained and managed to deliver the brand in a way that positively impacts the acquisition and retention of customers, see also employer branding .
Diffusion of innovations research explores how and why people adopt new products, services and ideas.
With consumers' eroding attention span and willingness to give time to advertising messages, marketers are turning to forms of permission marketing such as branded content , custom media and reality marketing .

Marketing research
Main article: Marketing research
Marketing research involves conducting research to support marketing activities, and the statistical interpretation of data into information. This information is then used by managers to plan marketing activities, gauge the nature of a firm's marketing environment and attain information from suppliers. Marketing researchers use statistical methods such as quantitative research , qualitative research , hypothesis tests , Chi-squared tests , linear regression , correlations , frequency distributions , poisson distributions , binomial distributions , etc. to interpret their findings and convert data into information. The marketing research process spans a number of stages including the definition of a problem, development of a research plan, collecting and interpretation of data and disseminating information formally in form of a report. The task of marketing research is to provide management with relevant, accurate, reliable, valid, and current information.
A distinction should be made between marketing research and market research . Market research pertains to research in a given market. As an example, a firm may conduct research in a target market, after selecting a suitable market segment. In contrast, marketing research relates to all research conducted within marketing. Thus, market research is a subset of marketing research.
Marketing environment
Main article: Marketing environment
Market segmentation
Main article: Market segmentation
Market segmentation pertains to the division of a market of consumers into persons with similar needs and wants. As an example, if using Kellogg's cereals in this instance, Frosties are marketed to children. Crunchy Nut Cornflakes are marketed to adults. Both goods aforementioned denote two products which are marketed to two distinct groups of persons, both with like needs, traits, and wants.
The purpose for market segmentation is conducted for two main issues. First, a segmentation allows a better allocation of a firm's finite resources. A firm only possesses a certain amount of resources. Accordingly, it must make choices (and appreciate the related costs) in servicing specific groups of consumers. Furthermore the diversified tastes of the contemporary Western consumers can be served better. With more diversity in the tastes of modern consumers, firms are taking note of the benefit of servicing a multiplicity of new markets.
Market segmentation can be defined in terms of the STP acronym, meaning S egment , T arget and P osition .
Types of marketing research
Marketing research, as a sub-set aspect of marketing activities, can be divided into the following parts:

Primary research (also known as field research), which involves the conduction and compilation of research for the purpose it was intended.
Secondary research (also referred to as desk research), is initially conducted for one purpose, but often used to support another purpose or end goal.

By these definitions, an example of primary research would be market research conducted into health foods, which is used solely to ascertain the needs/wants of the target market for health foods. Secondary research, again according to the above definition, would be research pertaining to health foods, but used by a firm wishing to develop an unrelated product.
Primary research is often expensive to prepare, collect and interpret from data to information. Nonetheless, while secondary research is relatively inexpensive, it often can become outdated and outmoded, given it is used for a purpose other than for which is was intended. Primary research can also be broken down into quantitative research and qualitative research, which as the labels suggest, pertain to numerical and non-numerical research methods, techniques. The appropriateness of each mode of research depends on whether data can be quantified (quantitative research), or whether subjective, non-numeric or abstract concepts are required to be studied (qualitative research).
There also exists additional modes of marketing research, which are:

Exploratory research, pertaining to research that investigates an assumption.
Descriptive research, which as the label suggests, describes "what is".
Predictive research, meaning research conducted to predict a future occurrence.
Conclusive research, for the purpose of deriving a conclusion via a research process.

Marketing planning





This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards . Please improve this section if you can. (October 2009)


Main article: Marketing plan
The area of marketing planning involves forging a plan for a firm's marketing activities. A marketing plan can also pertain to a specific product, as well as to an organization's overall marketing strategy . Generally speaking, an organization's marketing planning process is derived from its overall business strategy . Thus, when top management are devising the firm's strategic direction or mission, the intended marketing activities are incorporated into this plan. There are several levels of marketing objectives within an organization. The senior management of a firm would formulate a general business strategy for a firm. However, this general business strategy would be interpreted and implemented in different contexts throughout the firm.
Marketing strategy
The field of marketing strategy encompasses the strategy involved in the management of a given product.
A given firm may hold numerous products in the marketplace, spanning numerous and sometimes wholly unrelated industries. Accordingly, a plan is required in order to manage effectively such products. Evidently, a company needs to weigh up and ascertain how to utilize effectively its finite resources. As an example, a start-up car manufacturing firm would face little success, should it attempt to rival immediately Toyota, Ford, Nissan or any other large global car maker. Moreover, a product may be reaching the end of its life-cycle. Thus, the issue of divest, or a ceasing of production may be made. With regard to the aforesaid questions, each scenario requires a unique marketing strategy to be employed. Below are listed some prominent marketing strategy models, which seek to propose means to answer the preceding questions.
Marketing specializations
With the rapidly emerging force of globalization, the distinction between marketing within a firm's home country and marketing within external markets is disappearing very quickly. With this occurrence in mind, firms need to reorient their marketing strategies to meet the challenges of the global marketplace, in addition to sustaining their competitiveness within home markets. [ 13 ]
Buying behaviour
A marketing firm must ascertain the nature of the customers buying behaviour, if it is to market its product properly. In order to entice and persuade a consumer to buy a product, marketers try to determine the behavioural process of how a given product is purchased. Buying behaviour is usually split in two prime strands, whether selling to the consumer, known as business-to-consumer (B2C) or another business, similarly known as business-to-business (B2B).
B2C buying behaviour
This mode of behaviour concerns consumers, in the purchase of a given product. As an example, if one pictures a pair of sneakers, the desire for a pair of sneakers would be followed by an information search on available types/brands. This may include perusing media outlets, but most commonly consists of information gathered from family and friends.If the information search is insufficient, the consumer may search for alternative means to satisfy the need/want. In this case, this may be buying leather shoes, sandals, etc. The purchase decision is then made, in which the consumer actually buys the product. Following this stage, a post-purchase evaluation is often conducted, comprising an appraisal of the value/utility brought by the purchase of the sneakers. If the value/utility is high, then a repeat purchase may be bought. This could then develop into consumer loyalty, for the firm producing the pair of sneakers.
B2B buying behaviour
Relates to organizational/industrial buying behavior. [ 14 ] B2C and B2B behavior are not exact, as similarities and differences exist. Some of the key differences are listed below:
In a straight re-buy, the fourth, fifth and sixth stages are omitted. In a modified re-buy scenario, the fifth and sixth stages are precluded. In a new buy, all aforementioned stages are conducted.
Use of technologies
Marketing management can also note the importance of technology, within the scope of its marketing efforts. Computer-based information systems can be employed, aiding in a better processing and storage of data. Marketing researchers can use such systems to devise better methods of converting data into information, and for the creation of enhanced data gathering methods. Information technology can aid in improving an MKIS ' software and hardware components, to improve a company's marketing decision-making process.
In recent years, the netbook personal computer has gained significant market share among laptops , largely due to its more user-friendly size and portability. Information technology typically progress at a fast rate, leading to marketing managers being cognizant of the latest technological developments. Moreover, the launch of smartphones into the cellphone market is commonly derived from a demand among consumers for more technologically advanced products. A firm can lose out to competitors, should it refrain from noting the latest technological occurrences in its industry.
Technological advancements can facilitate lesser barriers between countries and regions. Via using the World Wide Web, firms can quickly dispatch information from one country to another, without much restriction. Prior to the mass usage of the Internet, such transfers of information would have taken longer to send, especially if via snail mail , telex , etc.
Services marketing
Services marketing, [ 15 ] as the label suggests, relates to the marketing of services, as opposed to tangible products (in standard economic terminology, a tangible product is called a good).
A typical definition of a service (as opposed to a good) is thus:

The use of it is inseparable from its purchase (,i.e. a service is used and consumed simultaneously)
It does not possess material form, and thus cannot be smelt, heard, tasted, or felt.
The use of a service is inherently subjective, in that due to the human condition, all persons experiencing a service would experience it uniquely.

As examples of the above points, a train ride can be deemed as a service. If one buys a train ticket, the use of the train is typically experienced concurrently with the purchase of the ticket. Moreover, a train ride cannot be smelt, heard, tasted or felt as such. Granted, a seat can be felt, and the train can be evidently heard, nonetheless one is not paying for the permanent ownership of the tangible components of the train.
Services (by comparison with goods) can also be viewed as a spectrum. Not all products are pure goods, nor are all pure services. The aforementioned example of a train ride can be deemed a pure service, whilst a packet of potato chips can be deemed a pure good. An intermediary example may be a restaurant (as the waiter service is intangible, and the food evidently is tangible in form).
See also

Advertising
Consumer behaviour
Demand chain
Distribution (Placement)
Market segmentation
Marketing acronyms
Outline of marketing
Positioning
Pricing
Product
Promotion (marketing)
Targeting (advertising)
Types of marketing

visual

visual

The visual system is the part of the central nervous system which enables organisms to see , as well as enabling several non-image forming photoresponse functions. It interprets information from visible light to build a representation of the surrounding world. The visual system accomplishes a number of complex tasks, including the reception of light and the formation of monocular representations; the construction of a binocular perception from a pair of two dimensional projections; the identification and categorization of visual objects; assessing distances to and between objects; and guiding body movements in relation to visual objects. The psychological manifestation of visual information is known as visual perception , a lack of which is called blindness . Non-image forming visual functions, independent of visual perception, include the pupillary light reflex (PLR) and circadian photoentrainment .




The visual system includes the eyes, the connecting pathways through to the visual cortex and other parts of the brain. The illustration shows the mammalian system.






Contents


1 Introduction
2 History
3 Biology of the visual system

3.1 Eye

3.1.1 Retina
3.1.2 Photochemistry


3.2 Fibers to thalamus

3.2.1 Optic nerve
3.2.2 Optic chiasm
3.2.3 Optic tract


3.3 Lateral geniculate nucleus
3.4 Optic radiation
3.5 Visual cortex
3.6 Visual association cortex


4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links





//

Introduction




Optical layout of the eye
The image projected onto the retina is inverted due to the optics of the eye.


This article mostly describes the visual system of mammals , although other "higher" animals have similar visual systems. In this case, the visual system consists of:

The eye , especially the retina
The optic nerve
The optic chiasma
The optic tract
The lateral geniculate body
The optic radiation
Visual cortex
Visual association cortex

Different species are able to see different parts of the light spectrum ; for example, bees can see into the ultraviolet , [ 1 ] while pit vipers can accurately target prey with their pit organs , which are sensitive to infrared radiation. [ 2 ]
History
In the second half of the 19th century, many motifs of the nervous system were identified such as the neuron doctrine and brain localisation, which related to the neuron being the basic unit of the nervous system and functional localisation in the brain , respectively. These would become tenets of the fledgling neuroscience and would support further understanding of the visual system.
The notion that the cerebral cortex is divided into functionally distinct cortices now known to be responsible for capacities such as touch ( somatosensory cortex ), movement ( motor cortex ), and vision ( visual cortex ), was first proposed by Franz Joseph Gall in 1810. [ 3 ] [ citation needed ] Evidence for functionally distinct areas of the brain (and, specifically, of the cerebral cortex) mounted throughout the 19th century with discoveries by Paul Broca of the language center (1861), and Gustav Fritsch and Edouard Hitzig of the motor cortex (1871). [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ citation needed ] Based on selective damage to parts of the brain and the functional effects this would produce ( lesion studies ), David Ferrier proposed that visual function was localised to the parietal lobe of the brain in 1876. [ 4 ] In 1881, Hermann Munk more accurately located vision in the occipital lobe , where the primary visual cortex is now known to be. [ 4 ] [ citation needed ]
Biology of the visual system
Eye
Main article: Eye
The eye is a complex biological device. The functioning of a camera is often compared with the workings of the eye, mostly since both focus light from external objects in the field of view onto a light-sensitive medium. In the case of the camera, this medium is film or an electronic sensor; in the case of the eye, it is an array of visual receptors. With this simple geometrical similarity, based on the laws of optics, the eye functions as a transducer , as does a CCD camera .
Light entering the eye is refracted as it passes through the cornea . It then passes through the pupil (controlled by the iris ) and is further refracted by the lens . The cornea and lens act together as a compound lens to project an inverted image onto the retina.
Retina




S. Ramón y Cajal , Structure of the Mammalian Retina, 1900


Main article: Retina
The retina consists of a large number of photoreceptor cells which contain particular protein molecules called opsins . In humans, two types of opsins are involved in conscious vision: rod opsins and cone opsins . (A third type, melanopsin in some of the retinal ganglion cells (RGC), part of the body clock mechanism, is probably not involved in conscious vision, as these RGC do not project to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) but to the pretectal olivary nucleus (PON). [ 5 ] ) An opsin absorbs a photon (a particle of light) and transmits a signal to the cell through a signal transduction pathway , resulting in hyperpolarization of the photoreceptor. (For more information, see Photoreceptor cell ).
Rods and cones differ in function. Rods are found primarily in the periphery of the retina and are used to see at low levels of light. Cones are found primarily in the center (or fovea ) of the retina. [ citation needed ] There are three types of cones that differ in the wavelengths of light they absorb; they are usually called short or blue, middle or green, and long or red. Cones are used primarily to distinguish color and other features of the visual world at normal levels of light. [ citation needed ]
In the retina, the photoreceptors synapse directly onto bipolar cells , which in turn synapse onto ganglion cells of the outermost layer, which will then conduct action potentials to the brain . A significant amount of visual processing arises from the patterns of communication between neurons in the retina. About 130 million photoreceptors absorb light, yet roughly 1.2 million axons of ganglion cells transmit information from the retina to the brain. The processing in the retina includes the formation of center-surround receptive fields of bipolar and ganglion cells in the retina, as well as convergence and divergence from photoreceptor to bipolar cell. In addition, other neurons in the retina, particularly horizontal and amacrine cells , transmit information laterally (from a neuron in one layer to an adjacent neuron in the same layer), resulting in more complex receptive fields that can be either indifferent to color and sensitive to motion or sensitive to color and indifferent to motion. [ citation needed ]
The final result of all this processing is five different populations of ganglion cells that send visual (image-forming and non-image-forming) information to the brain:

M cells, with large center-surround receptive fields that are sensitive to depth , indifferent to color, and rapidly adapt to a stimulus;
P cells, with smaller center-surround receptive fields that are sensitive to color and shape ;
K cells, with very large center-only receptive fields that are sensitive to color and indifferent to shape or depth;
another population that is intrinsically photosensitive ; and
a final population that is used for eye movements. [ citation needed ]

A 2006 University of Pennsylvania study calculated the approximate bandwidth of human retinas to be about 8960 kilobits per second, whereas guinea pig retinas transfer at about 875 kilobits. [ 6 ]
In 2007 Zaidi and co-researchers on both sides of the Atlantic studying patients without rods and cones, discovered that the novel photoreceptive ganglion cell in humans also has a role in conscious and unconscious visual perception. [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] The peak spectral sensitivity was 481 nm. This shows that there are two pathways for sight in the retina – one based on classic photoreceptors (rods and cones) and the other, newly discovered, based on photoreceptive ganglion cells which act as rudimentary visual brightness detectors.
Photochemistry
Main article: Visual cycle
In the visual system, retinal , technically called retinene 1 or "retinaldehyde", is a light-sensitive retinene molecule found in the rods and cones of the retina . Retinal is the fundamental structure involved in the transduction of light into visual signals, i.e. nerve impulses in the ocular system of the central nervous system . In the presence of light, the retinal molecule changes configuration and as a result a nerve impulse is generated. [ citation needed ]
Fibers to thalamus
Optic nerve
Main article: Optic nerve




Information flow from the eyes (top), crossing at the optic chiasma , joining left and right eye information in the optic tract , and layering left and right visual stimuli in the lateral geniculate nucleus . V1 in red at bottom of image. (1543 image from Andreas Vesalius ' Fabrica )


The information about the image via the eye is transmitted to the brain along the optic nerve . Different populations of ganglion cells in the retina send information to the brain through the optic nerve. About 90% of the axons in the optic nerve go to the lateral geniculate nucleus in the thalamus . These axons originate from the M, P, and K ganglion cells in the retina, see above. This parallel processing is important for reconstructing the visual world; each type of information will go through a different route to perception . Another population sends information to the superior colliculus in the midbrain , which assists in controlling eye movements ( saccades ) [ 10 ] as well as other motor responses.
A final population of photosensitive ganglion cells , containing melanopsin , sends information via the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT) to the pretectum (pupillary reflex), to several structures involved in the control of circadian rhythms and sleep such as the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN, the biological clock), and to the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus ( VLPO , a region involved in sleep regulation). [ 11 ] A recently discovered role for photoreceptive ganglion cells is that they mediate conscious and unconscious vision – acting as rudimentary visual brightness detectors as shown in rodless coneless eyes. [ 7 ] [ citation needed ]
Optic chiasm
Main article: Optic chiasm
The optic nerves from both eyes meet and cross at the optic chiasm, [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ citation needed ] at the base of the hypothalamus of the brain. At this point the information coming from both eyes is combined and then splits according to the visual field . The corresponding halves of the field of view (right and left) are sent to the left and right halves of the brain, respectively, to be processed. That is, the right side of primary visual cortex deals with the left half of the field of view from both eyes, and similarly for the left brain. [ 10 ] A small region in the center of the field of view is processed redundantly by both halves of the brain.
Optic tract
Main article: Optic tract
Information from the right visual field (now on the left side of the brain) travels in the left optic tract. Information from the left visual field travels in the right optic tract. Each optic tract terminates in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) in the thalamus.




Six layers in the LGN


Lateral geniculate nucleus
Main article: lateral geniculate nucleus
The lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) is a sensory relay nucleus in the thalamus of the brain. The LGN consists of six layers in humans and other primates starting from catarhinians, including cercopithecidae and apes. Layers 1, 4, and 6 correspond to information from the contralateral (crossed) fibers of the nasal visual field; layers 2, 3, and 5 correspond to information from the ipsilateral (uncrossed) fibers of the temporal visual field. Layer one (1) contains M cells which correspond to the M (magnocellular) cells of the optic nerve of the opposite eye and are concerned with depth or motion. Layers four and six (4 & 6) of the LGN also connect to the opposite eye, but to the P cells (color and edges) of the optic nerve. By contrast, layers two, three and five (2, 3, & 5) of the LGN connect to the M cells and P (parvocellular) cells of the optic nerve for the same side of the brain as its respective LGN. Spread out, the six layers of the LGN are the area of a credit card and about three times its thickness. The LGN is rolled up into two ellipsoids about the size and shape of two small birds' eggs. In between the six layers are smaller cells that receive information from the K cells (color) in the retina. The neurons of the LGN then relay the visual image to the primary visual cortex (V1) which is located at the back of the brain ( caudal end ) in the occipital lobe in and close to the calcarine sulcus. [ citation needed ]




Gray's FIG. 722– Scheme showing central connections of the optic nerves and optic tracts.


Optic radiation
Main article: Optic radiation
The optic radiations , one on each side of the brain, carry information from the thalamic lateral geniculate nucleus to layer 4 of the visual cortex . The P layer neurons of the LGN relay to V1 layer 4C β. The M layer neurons relay to V1 layer 4C α. The K layer neurons in the LGN relay to large neurons called blobs in layers 2 and 3 of V1. [ citation needed ]
There is a direct correspondence from an angular position in the field of view of the eye, all the way through the optic tract to a nerve position in V1. At this juncture in V1, the image path ceases to be straightforward; there is more cross-connection within the visual cortex.
Visual cortex
Main article: Visual cortex




Visual cortex : V1, V2, V3, V4, V5 (also called MT)


The visual cortex is the most massive system in the human brain and is responsible for processing the visual image. It lies at the rear of the brain (highlighted in the image), above the cerebellum . The region that receives information directly from the LGN is called the primary visual cortex , (also called V1 and striate cortex). Visual information then flows through a cortical hierarchy. These areas include V2, V3, V4 and area V5/MT (the exact connectivity depends on the species of the animal). These secondary visual areas (collectively termed the extrastriate visual cortex) process a wide variety of visual primitives. Neurons in V1 and V2 respond selectively to bars of specific orientations, or combinations of bars. These are believed to support edge and corner detection. Similarly, basic information about color and motion is processed here. [ citation needed ]
Visual association cortex
Main article: Two Streams hypothesis
As visual information passes forward through the visual hierarchy, the complexity of the neural representations increase. Whereas a V1 neuron may respond selectively to a line segment of a particular orientation in a particular retinotopic location, neurons in the lateral occipital complex respond selectively to complete object (e.g., a figure drawing), and neurons in visual association cortex may respond selectively to human faces, or to a particular object.
Along with this increasing complexity of neural representation may come a level of specialization of processing into two distinct pathways: the dorsal stream and the ventral stream (the Two Streams hypothesis , [ 14 ] first proposed by Ungerleider and Mishkin in 1982). The dorsal stream, commonly referred to as the "where" stream, is involved in spatial attention (covert and overt), and communicates with regions that control eye movements and hand movements. More recently, this area has been called the "how" stream to emphasize its role in guiding behaviors to spatial locations. The ventral stream, commonly referred as the "what" stream, is involved in the recognition, identification and categorization of visual stimuli.
However, there is still much debate about the degree of specialization within these two pathways, since they are in fact heavily interconnected. [ 15 ]
See also




Neuroscience portal




Echolocation
Computer vision
Memory-prediction framework
Visual perception
Visual modularity

podcasts

podcasts

A podcast (or non- streamed webcast ) is a series of digital media files (either audio or video ) that are released episodically and often downloaded through web syndication . The word usurped webcast in common vernacular, due to rising popularity of the iPod and the innovation of web feeds .
The mode of delivery differentiates podcasting from other means of accessing media files over the Internet , such as direct download, or streamed webcasting . A list of all the audio or video files currently associated with a given series is maintained centrally on the distributor's server as a web feed , and the listener or viewer employs special client application software known as a podcatcher that can access this web feed, check it for updates, and download any new files in the series. This process can be automated so that new files are downloaded automatically. Files are stored locally on the user's computer or other device ready for offline use, giving simple and convenient access to episodic content. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] Commonly used audio file formats are Ogg Vorbis and MP3 .
Academics at the Community, Journalism & Communication Research group at the University of Texas at Austin in the USA are proposing a four-part definition of a podcast: A podcast is a digital audio or video file that is episodic; downloadable; programme-driven, mainly with a host and/or theme; and convenient, usually via an automated feed with computer software. [ 3 ]




Contents


1 Name
2 History
3 Trademarks

3.1 Trademark applications
3.2 Apple trademark protections


4 See also
5 References
6 External links





//

Name
The term "podcasting" was first mentioned by Ben Hammersley in The Guardian newspaper in a February 2004 article, along with other proposed names for the new medium. [ 4 ] It is a portmanteau of the words "pod"— "playable on demand", which was later used by Apple Computer (now Apple )for its brand of portable media player iPod —and " broadcasting ". [ 2 ] The name may be misleading, as despite the etymology it has never been necessary to use an iPod, or, indeed, any other form of portable media player, to use podcasts; the content can be accessed using any computer that can play media files. [ 5 ] Use of the term "podcast" predates the addition of native support for podcasting to the iPod, or to Apple's iTunes software. [ 6 ] To avoid a term suggestive of "iPod", some use the term netcast instead of podcast , such as the TWiT.tv podcaster Leo Laporte . [ 7 ] A backronym has been posited where podcast stands for "Personal On Demand broadCAST". [ 8 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] .
History





Please help improve this article by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page . (May 2009)


Main article: History of podcasting
Podcasting began to catch hold with the public in late 2004, though during the 1998–2001 dot-com era there were multiple "podcasts" done by major companies, such as Real Networks and ESPN.com. [ citation needed ] Many individuals and groups [ who? ] contributed to the emergence and popularity of podcasts. Adam Curry is credited with coming up with the idea to automate the delivery and syncing of textual content to portable audio players. [ 11 ] In 2005 The Ricky Gervais show became the most Downloaded podcast and would go on to receive the first Guinness World record for Podcasting in 2007. The show had an average of 261,670 downloads per episode during its first month. [ 12 ]
Trademarks




The logo used by Apple to represent Podcasting


Trademark applications
On February 10, 2005, Shae Spencer Management LLC of Fairport, New York filed a trademark application to register podcast for an "online prerecorded radio program over the internet". On September 9, 2005, the United States Patent and Trademark Office rejected the application, citing Wikipedia 's podcast entry as describing the history of the term. The company amended their application in March, 2006, but the USPTO rejected the amended application as not sufficiently differentiated from the original. In November, 2006, the application was marked as abandoned. [ 13 ]
As of September 20, 2005, known trademarks that attempted to capitalize on podcast include: Podcast Realty, GuidePod, PodGizmo, Pod-Casting, MyPod, Podvertiser, Podango, ePodcast, PodCabin, Podcaster, PodShop, PodKitchen, Podgram, GodPod and Podcast. [ 14 ] By February 2007, there had been 24 attempts to register trademarks containing the word "PODCAST" in United States, but only "PODCAST READY" from Podcast Ready, Inc. was approved. [ 15 ]
Apple trademark protections
On September 26, 2006, it was reported that Apple Computer started to crack down on businesses using the acronym "POD", in product and company names. Apple sent a cease-and-desist order that week to Podcast Ready, Inc., which markets an application known as "myPodder". [ 16 ] Lawyers for Apple contended that the term "pod" has been used by the public to refer to Apple's music player so extensively that it falls under Apple's trademark cover. [ 17 ] It was speculated that such activity was part of a bigger campaign for Apple to expand the scope of its existing iPod trademark, which included trademarking "IPODCAST", "IPOD", and "POD". [ 18 ] On November 16, 2006, Apple Trademark Department returned a letter claiming Apple does not object to third party usage of "podcast" to refer to podcasting services and that Apple does not license the term(s). [ 19 ]
See also

Uses of podcasting
Enhanced podcast
Screencast
List of podcatchers
Video podcast
Podcast novel
Social media
Streaming media
User-generated content
Portable media player
Web television
Protection of Broadcasts and Broadcasting Organizations Treaty

branding

branding

Livestock branding is a technique for marking livestock so as to identify the owner. Originally, livestock branding only referred to a hot brand for large stock, though the term is now also used to refer to other alternative techniques such as freeze branding. Other forms of livestock identification include inner lip or ear tattoos , earmarking , ear tagging , and RFID tagging with a type of microchip . The semi-permanent paint markings used to identify sheep are called a paint or colour brand. In the American west , branding evolved into a complex marking system still in use today.




Contents


1 History
2 Modern usage
3 Methods of branding
4 Temporary branding
5 Freeze branding
6 Horse branding regulations
7 Symbols and terminology in branding
8 See also
9 References





//

History
The act of marking livestock with fire-heated marks to identify ownership has origins in ancient times, with use dating back to the ancient Egyptians . [ 1 ] In English lexicon, the word brand originally meant anything hot or burning, such as a firebrand , a burning stick. By the European Middle Ages , it commonly identified the process of burning a mark into stock animals with thick hides, such as cattle , so as to identify ownership under animus revertendi . The practice became particularly widespread in nations with large cattle grazing regions, such as Spain .
These European customs were imported to the Americas and were further refined by the vaquero tradition in what today is the southwestern United States and northern Mexico . In the American West , a branding iron consisted of an iron rod with a simple symbol or mark, which cowboys heated in a fire. After the branding iron turned red-hot, the cowboy pressed the branding iron against the hide of the cow. The unique brand meant that cattle owned by multiple ranches could then graze freely together on the open range. Cowboys could then separate the cattle at round-up time for driving to market . Cattle rustlers using "running irons" were ingenious in changing brands. The most famous brand change involved the making of the X I T brand into a star with a cross inside. [ 2 ]
From the Americas, many cattle branding traditions and techniques spread to Australia , where a distinct set of traditions and techniques developed. Livestock branding has been practiced in Australia since 1866, but it was not until 1897 that each owner had to register his brand. These fire and paint brands could not then be duplicated legally.
Modern usage
Free-range or open range grazing is less common today than in the past. However, branding still has its uses. The main purpose is in proving ownership of lost or stolen animals. Many western US states have strict laws regarding brands, including brand registration and required brand inspections. In many cases, a brand on an animal is considered prima facie proof of ownership. (See Brand Book )
In the hides and leather industry, brands are treated as a defect, and can diminish the value of the hide. This industry has a number of traditional terms relating to the type of brand on a hide. Colorado Branded (slang Collie ) refers to placement of a brand on the side of an animal, although this does not necessarily indicate the animal is from Colorado . Butt branded refers to a hide which has had a brand placed on the portion of the skin covering the rump area of the animal. Cleanskin is the term used to describe an animal without a brand. Native refers to a skin without a brand. [ 3 ]
Methods of branding




Hot iron horse branding, Spain






Modern portable table calf branding cradle, NSW, Australia


The traditional cowboy or stockman captured and secured an animal for branding by roping it, laying it over on the ground, tying its legs together, and applying a branding iron that had been heated in a fire. Modern ranch practice has moved toward use of chutes where animals can be run into a confined area and safely secured while the brand is applied. Two types of restraint are the cattle crush or squeeze chute (for larger cattle), which may close on either side of a standing animal, or a branding cradle, where calves are caught in a cradle which is rotated so that the animal is lying on its side.




Bronco branding in the Top End .






A stud Merino ram that has been branded on his horn


Bronco branding is an old method of catching cattle on Top End cattle stations for branding in Australia . A heavy horse, usually with some draught horse bloodlines and typically fitted with a horse collar , is used to rope the selected calf. The calf is then pulled up to several sloping topped panels and a post constructed for the purpose in the centre of the yard, to be branded there. With the advent of portable cradles, this method of branding has been mostly phased out on stations. However, there are now quite a few bronco branding competitions at rodeos and campdrafting days, etc.
Some ranches still heat branding irons in a wood or coal fire, others use an electric branding iron or electric sources to heat a traditional iron. Gas fired branding iron heaters are very popular in Australia , as iron temperatures can be regulated and there is not the heat of a nearby fire. Regardless of heating method, the iron is only applied for the amount of time needed to remove all hair and create a permanent mark. Branding irons are applied for a longer period of time to cattle than to horses, due to the differing thickness of the skin. If a brand is applied too long, it can damage the skin too deeply, thus requiring treatment for potential infection and longer-term healing. Stock that are wet when branded may result in the smudging of the brand. Brand identification may be difficult on long haired animals and may necessitate clipping of the area to view the brand.
Horses may also be branded on their hooves [ 4 ] , but this is not a permanent mark and needs to be re-done about every six months. Merino rams and bulls are sometimes firebranded on their horns for permanent individual identification.
Temporary branding
Temporary branding is achieved by heat branding lightly, so that the hair is burned but the skin is not damaged. Because this persists only until the animal sheds its hair, it is not considered a properly applied brand. [ 5 ]
Freeze branding




A white marking on the crest of a horse's neck created by freeze branding, a form of marking for identification that is nearly painless.


In contrast to traditional hot-iron branding, freeze branding uses a branding iron that has been chilled with a coolant such as dry ice or liquid nitrogen . Rather than burning a scar into the animal, a freeze brand damages the pigment-producing hair cells, causing the animal's hair to grow white where the brand has been applied. To apply a freeze brand, the hair coat of the animal is shaved so that the bare skin is exposed, then the frozen iron is applied to the bare area for a period of time that varies with both the species of animal and the color of its hair coat: Shorter times are used on dark-colored animals, simply causing the hair follicles to lose all color and regrow as white hairs. Longer times are needed on animals with white hair coats, as the brand is applied long enough to permanently stop the hair from growing in the branded area and only skin remains.




Freeze brand detail on shoulder of horse.


Freeze brands cause less damage to the animals' hides than hot iron brands, and can be more visible. Horses are frequently freeze-branded. At this time, hogs cannot be successfully freeze branded, as their hair pigment cells are better protected. Also, freeze branding is slower, more expensive, less predictable (more care is required in application to assure desired results), and in some places does not constitute a legal brand on cattle. [ 6 ] When an animal grows a long hair coat, the freeze brand is still visible, but its details are not always clear. Thus, is it sometimes necessary to shave or closely trim the hair so that a sharper image of a freeze brand can be viewed.
An animal that is going to have a freeze brand applied will need to have the hair shaved off of the branding site. Hair is an excellent insulator and needs to be removed so that the extreme cold of the freeze branding iron can be applied directly to the skin. Then the freeze branding iron, made of metal such as brass or copper that removes heat rapidly from the skin, is submerged into the coolant. Immediately before the freeze branding iron is ready to be applied, the animal's skin is rubbed, squirted, or sprayed with a generous amount of 99% alcohol, then the freeze branding iron is removed from the coolant and held onto the skin with firm pressure for several seconds. The exact amount of time will vary according to the kind of animal, the thickness of its skin, the type of metal the branding iron is made of, the type of coolant being used, and other factors.
Immediately after the freeze branding iron is removed from the skin, an indented outline of the brand will be visible. Within seconds, however, the outline will disappear and within several minutes after that, the brand outline will reappear as swollen, puffy skin. Once the swelling subsides, for a short time, the brand will be difficult or impossible to see, but in a few days, the branded skin will begin to flake, and within three to four weeks, the brand will begin to take on its permanent appearance.
Horse branding regulations
In Australia all Arabian , Part Bred Arabians, Australian Stock Horses , [ 7 ] Quarter Horses , [ 8 ] Thoroughbreds [ 9 ] , and the nine pony breeds registered in the Australian Pony Stud Book [ 10 ] must be branded with an owner brand on the near (left) shoulder and an individual foaling drop number (in relation to the other foals) over the foaling year number on the off shoulder. In Queensland , these three brands may be placed on the near shoulder in the above order. Stock Horse and Quarter Horse classification brands are placed on the hind quarters by the classifiers.
Thoroughbreds and Standardbreds in Australia and New Zealand are freeze branded. Standardbred brands are in the form of the Alpha Angle Branding System, [ 11 ] which the US also uses. [ 12 ] [ 13 ]
In the United States , branding of horses is not generally mandated by the government; however, there are a few exceptions: captured Mustangs made available for adoption by the BLM are freeze-branded on the neck, usually with the Alpha Angle Branding System or with numbers, for identification. Horses that test positive for Equine Infectious Anemia , that are quarantined for life rather than euthasized , will be freeze-branded for permanent identification. Race horses of any breed are usually required by state racing commissions to have a lip tattoo , to be identified at the track. Some breed associations have, at times, offered freeze branding as either a requirement for registration or simply as an optional benefit to members, and individual horse owners may choose branding as a means by which to permanently identify their animals. Currently, the issue of whether to mandate horses be implanted with RFID microchips under the National Animal Identification System is generating considerable controversy in the United States.
Symbols and terminology in branding




Branding irons


Most brands in the United States are capital letters , numerals , other symbols (such as a slash , circle , half circle , cross , and bar ), and combinations thereof. Brands of this type have a specialized language for "calling" the brand. Some owners prefer to use simple pictures ; these brands are called using a short description of the picture (e.g., "rising sun"). Brands are called left to right, top to bottom, and outside in. [ 14 ]
Letters and numerals can appear upright, reversed, or turned 90 degrees so that the character appears to be lying down or lazy . Terms used are:

Upright symbols are called normally.
"Crazy": reversed symbols, e.g. "Crazy K".
"Lazy": , symbols turned 90 degrees, e.g., "Lazy 5".
"Flying": a symbol that starts and ends with a long serif or horizontal line.
"Rocking": a symbol set on top of a quarter circle.
"Bar": a symbol preceded or followed by a horizontal line, e.g. "bar M" or "M bar."
"Box": a symbol within a square or rectangle.
"Circle": a symbol within a circle.
There can also be certain combinations such as with two lines (e.g. "double flying" then the letter).

Combinations of symbols can be made with each symbol distinct, or:

"Connected", with symbols touching, ( ).
"Combined or conjoined": symbols are partially overlaid,
"Hanging": symbols are touching, but arranged top to bottom.

See also

Branding iron
Squeeze chute
Tattoo
Ranch
Horse markings

business card

business card

Business cards are cards bearing business information about a company or individual . They are shared during formal introductions as a convenience and a memory aid. A business card typically includes the giver's name, company affiliation (usually with a logo ) and contact information such as street addresses , telephone number (s), fax number, e-mail addresses and website . It can also include telex , bank account , tax code . Traditionally many cards were simple black text on white stock; today a professional business card will sometimes include one or more aspects of striking visual design.




Contents


1 Construction
2 Dimensions
3 Other formats
4 Special materials
5 Business Card Software
6 Collecting
7 See also
8 References





//

Construction
Business cards are printed on some form of card stock , the visual effect, method of printing, cost and other details varying according to cultural or organizational norms and personal preferences. The common weight of a business card may vary on your location. Generally, business cards are printed on stock that is 350g/m 2 ( density ), 45 kg (100 lb.) (weight), or 12pt (thickness).
High quality business cards without full-color photographs are normally printed using spot colors on sheet-fed offset printing presses. Some companies have gone so far as to trademark their spot colors (examples are UPS brown, Los Angeles Lakers ' purple, and Tide 's orange). If a business card logo is a single color and the type is another color, the process is considered two color. More spot colors can be added depending on the needs of the card. With the onset of digital printing, and batch printing, it is now cost effective to print business cards in full color.
To simulate the "raised-print" effect of printing with engraved plates, a less-expensive process called thermography was developed that uses the application of a plastic powder, which adheres to the wet ink. The cards are then passed through a heating unit, which melts the plastic onto the card. Spot UV varnish onto matte laminate can also have a similar effect.
Full color cards, or cards that use many colors, are printed on sheetfed presses as well; however, they use the CMYK (cyan, magenta, yellow, and black) four-color printing process. Screens of each color overprinted on one another create a wide gamut of color. The downside to this printing method is that screened colors if examined closely will reveal tiny dots, whereas spot color cards are printed solid in most cases. Spot colors should be used for simple cards with line art or non-black type that is smaller than 5 points.
Some terminology in reference to full color printing:

4/0 - Full Color Front / No Print On Back
4/1 - Full Color Front / One color On reverse
4/4 - Full Color Front / Full Color Back

These names are pronounced as "four over zero," "four over one," or "four over four".
A business card can also be coated with a UV glossy coat (offset-uv Printing). The coat is applied just like another ink using an additional unit on a sheetfed press . That being said, UV coats can also be applied as a spot coating - meaning areas can be coated, and other areas can be left uncoated. This creates additional design potential.
Business Cards can also be printed with a digital copier, which uses toner baked onto the surface of the card. Some industry leaders have begun avoiding the using the term copier in their literature, insisting their state-of-the-art machines are more like digital presses, than their office-oriented predecessors.
While some of the older office copiers may have had problems running heavy business card stock, the newest digital presses can print on stock as heavy as 80# to 100# cover stock, and 12 to 14 point stocks with ease.
UV coats, and other coatings such as Aqueous Coatings are used to speed manufacturing of the cards. Cards that are not dry will "offset" which means the ink from the front of one card will end up on the back of the next one. UV coatings are generally highly glossy but are more likely to fingerprint, while aqueous coatings are not noticeable but increase the life of the card. It is possible to use a dull aqueous coating on uncoated stock and get some very durable uncoated cards, and using UV coating or plastic lamination can also be applied to thicken thin stocked cards and make them more durable as well.
When cards are designed, they are given bleeds if color extends to the edge of the finished cut size. (A bleed is the extension of printed lines or colors beyond the line where the paper it is printed on will be cut.) This is to help ensure that the paper will cut without white edges due to very small differences in where the blade cuts the cards, and it is almost impossible to cut the cards properly without. Just being a hair off can result in white lines, and the blade itself will pull the paper while cutting. The image on the paper can also shift from page to page which is called a bounce, which is generally off by a hairline on an offset press, but can be quite large on lower end equipment such as a copier or a duplicator press. Bleeds are typically an extra 3.175 ( 1 ⁄ 8 ) to 6.35 mm ( 1 ⁄ 4 in) to all sides of the card.

Bleed Size: 95.25 × 57.15 mm (3.75 × 2.25 in) ( 1 ⁄ 8  in bleeds)
Standard Cut Size: 89 × 51 mm (3.5 × 2 in)

Fold-over or "tent" cards, and side fold cards are popular as well. Generally these cards will fold to the standard size.
In today's global marketplace, it is not uncommon for the cards to be printed with English on one side and the local language (if not English) on the other.
Dimensions
Aspect ratios range from 1.42 to 1.8.


Standard
Dimensions (mm)
Dimensions (in)
Aspect ratio


ISO 216 , A8 sized
74 × 52
2.913 × 2.047
1.423


ISO/IEC 7810 ID-1, credit card sized
85.60 × 53.98
3.370 × 2.125
1.586


Ireland , Italy , United Kingdom , France , Germany , Netherlands , Spain , Switzerland , Belgium
85 × 55
3.346 × 2.165
1.545


Australia , Denmark , New Zealand , Norway , Sweden
90 × 55
3.54 × 2.165
1.636


Japan
91 × 55
3.582 × 2.165
1.655


Hong Kong , China
90 × 54
3.543 × 2.125
1.667


Canada , United States
88.9 × 50.8
3.5 × 2
1.75


Argentina , Brazil , Czech Republic , Finland , Hungary , Israel , Kazakhstan , Poland , Romania , Russia , Serbia , Slovakia , Ukraine , Bulgaria , Mexico
90 × 50
3.543 × 1.968
1.8


Other formats
Recent technological advances have made CD-ROM "business cards" possible which can hold about 35 to 100 MB of data. These cards may be square, round or oblong but are approximately the same size as a conventional business card. CD business cards are designed to fit within the 80 mm tray of a computer's CD-ROM drive. They are playable in most computer CD drives, however do not work in slot-loading drives. Despite the ability to include dynamic presentations and a great deal of data, these discs are not in common use as business cards.
Most handheld computers have the ability to wirelessly transmit (through either infra-red or Bluetooth or RFID ) an electronic business card, eliminating the need for the recipient to re-key the contact information. [ citation needed ] This is also done via SMS .
Special materials
Apart from common business cards made of paper/card there are also special business cards made from plastic ( PVC ), especially frosted translucent plastic, crystal clear plastic, white or metallic plastic. Other extraordinary materials are metal, rubberized cards, rubber, magnets, poker chips, wooden nickels, and even real wood. For the most part those special material business cards are of standard format, preferably with rounded corners. These new materials are popular among companies that wish a unique and eye-catching look.
Business Card Software
Business cards can be mass produced by a printshop or printed at home using business card software . Such software typically contains design, layout tools, and text editing tools for designing one's business cards. Most business card software integrates with other software (like mail clients or address books) to eliminate the need of entering contact data manually. Cards are usually printed on business card stock or saved in an electronic form and sent to a printshop. Multiple programs are available for users of both Mac and Windows platforms.
Collecting
There are several hundred known collectors of business cards, especially antique cards, celebrity cards, or cards made of unusual materials. One of the major business card collectors' clubs is the International Business Card Collectors , IBCC. IBCC members exchange cards with other members, simply for the price of postage. Collectors often shorten the words "business card" to BC to make e-mail discussion easier. [ citation needed ]
See also



Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Business card



Internet Business Cards
Meishi
vCard
hCard
Visiting card

brochures

brochures

A brochure (also referred to as a pamphlet ) is a type of leaflet. Brochures are most commonly found at places that tourists frequently visit, such as museums, major shops, and tourist information. Brochure racks or stands may suggest visits to amusement parks and other points of interest. Another type of brochure is interpersonal brochures, which are brochures based on other people. Then there are pamphlets that you can find in health clinics and hospitals, that give help and advice to do with your health. The two most common brochure styles are single sheet, and booklet ( folded leaflets ) forms.
The most common types of single-sheet brochures are the bi-fold (a single sheet printed on both sides and folded into halves) and the tri-fold (the same, but folded into thirds). A bi-fold brochure results in four panels (two panels on each side), while a tri-fold results in six panels (three panels on each side). [ 1 ]
Other folder arrangements are possible: the accordion or "Z-fold" method, the "C-fold" method, etc. Larger sheets, such as those with detailed maps or expansive photo spreads, are folded into four, five, or six panels.
Booklet brochures are made of multiple sheets most often saddle stitched (stapled on the creased edge) or "perfect bound" like a paperback book, and result in eight panels or more.
Brochures are often printed using four color process on thick gloss paper to give an initial impression of quality. Businesses may turn out small quantities of brochures on a computer printer or on a digital printer , but offset printing turns out higher quantities for less cost.
Compared with a flyer or a handbill, a brochure usually uses higher-quality paper, more color, and is folded.

posters

posters

A poster is any piece of printed paper designed to be attached to a wall or vertical surface. Typically posters include both textual and graphic elements, although a poster may be either wholly graphical or wholly text. Posters are designed to be both eye-catching and convey information. Posters may be used for many purposes. They are a frequent tool of advertisers (particularly of events, musicians and films), propagandists , protestors and other groups trying to communicate a message. Posters are also used for reproductions of artwork , particularly famous works, and are generally low-cost compared to original artwork. Another type of poster is the educational poster, which may be about a particular subject for educational purposes.
Many people also collect posters, and some famous posters have themselves become quite valuable. Collectors' posters and vintage posters are usually framed and matted. Posters may be any size.




Contents


1 Poster history

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Mass production
1.3 Developing art form
1.4 Commercial uses
1.5 Political uses


2 Poster printing
3 Types of posters

3.1 Propaganda and political posters
3.2 Advertising posters

3.2.1 Film posters
3.2.2 Comic book posters
3.2.3 Railway posters


3.3 Event posters

3.3.1 Boxing posters
3.3.2 Concert posters


3.4 Educational posters

3.4.1 Research posters and "poster sessions"
3.4.2 Classroom posters


3.5 Vintage poster restoration/conservation

3.5.1 Cheesecake posters


3.6 Fanposter
3.7 Affirmation posters
3.8 Band/music posters
3.9 Book posters


4 Notable poster artists
5 Contemporary poster artists
6 Gallery

6.1 Gallery see also


7 See also
8 Notes
9 Further reading
10 External links





//

Poster history
Introduction
According to French historian Max Gallo , "for over two hundred years, posters have been displayed in public places all over the world. Visually striking, they have been designed to attract the attention of passers-by, making us aware of a political viewpoint, enticing us to attend specific events, or encouraging us to purchase a particular product or service." [ 1 ] The modern poster, as we know it, however, dates back to 1870 when the printing industry perfected color lithography and made mass production possible.
"In little more than a hundred years," writes poster expert John Barnicoat, "it has come to be recognized as a vital art form, attracting artists at every level, from painters like Toulouse-Lautrec and Mucha to theatrical and commercial designers." [ 2 ] They have ranged in styles from Art Nouveau , Symbolism , Cubism , and Art Deco to the more formal Bauhaus and the often incoherent hippie posters of the 1960s.
Mass production
Posters, in the form of placards and posted bills, have been used since earliest times, primarily for advertising and announcements. Purely textual posters have a long history: they advertised the plays of Shakespeare and made citizens aware of government proclamations for centuries. However, the great revolution in posters was the development of printing techniques that allowed for cheap mass production and printing, including notably the technique lithography which was invented in 1796 by the German Alois Senefelder . The invention of lithography was soon followed by chromolithography , which allowed for mass editions of posters illustrated in vibrant colors to be printed.
Developing art form
By the 1890s, the technique had spread throughout Europe. A number of noted artists created poster art in this period, foremost amongst them Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Jules Chéret . Chéret is considered to be the "father" of advertisement placards. He was a pencil artist and a scene decorator, who founded a small lithography office in Paris in 1866. He used striking characters, contrast and bright colors, and created over 1000 advertisements, primarily for exhibitions, theatres, and products. The industry soon attracted the service of many aspiring painters who needed a source of revenue to support themselves.
Chéret developed a new lithographic technique that suited better the needs of advertisers: he added a lot more colour which, in conjunction with innovative typography , rendered the poster much more expressive. Not surprisingly, Chéret is said to have introduced sex in advertising or, at least, to have exploited the feminine image as an advertising ploy. In contrast with those previously painted by Toulouse-Lautrec , Chéret's laughing and provocative feminine figures meant a new conception of art as being of service to advertising.
Posters soon transformed the thoroughfares of Paris into the "art galleries of the street." Their commercial success was such that some of the artists were in great demand and theatre stars personally selected their own favorite artist to do the poster for an upcoming performance. The popularity of poster art was such that in 1884 a major exhibition was held in Paris.
Commercial uses




Lithograph poster for Ranch 10 , a Western-themed play by Harry Meredith which opened in New York City in August 1882


By the 1890s, poster art had widespread usage in other parts of Europe, advertising everything from bicycles to bullfights. By the end of the 19th century, during an era known as the Belle Époque , the standing of the poster as a serious artform was raised even further. Between 1895 and 1900, Jules Chéret created the Maîtres de l'Affiche (Masters of the Poster) series that became not only a commercial success, but is now seen as an important historical publication. Alphonse Mucha and Eugène Grasset were also influential poster designers of this generation, known for their Art Nouveau style and stylized figures, particularly of women. Advertisement posters became a special type of graphic art in the modern age. Poster artists such as Théophile Steinlen , Albert Guillaume , Leonetto Cappiello and others became important figures of their day, their art form transferred to magazines for advertising as well as for social and political commentary.
In the United States , posters did not evolve to the same artistic level. American posters were primarily directed towards basic commercial needs to deliver a written message. However, the advent of the travelling circus brought colorful posters to tell citizens that a carnival was coming to town. But these too were very commercially utilitarian, of average quality, and few saw any real artistic creativity.
Many posters have had great artistic merit and have become extremely collectible. These include the posters advertising World's Fairs and Colonial Exhibitions .
Political uses




During the 1968 Paris student riots and for years to come, Jim Fitzpatrick's stylized poster of Marxist revolutionary Che Guevara became a common youthful symbol of rebellion. [ 3 ]


Other times of great turmoil also produced great posters. The 1960s saw the rise of pop art and protest movements throughout the West; both made great use of posters. Perhaps the most acclaimed posters were those produced by French students during the so-called " événements " of May 1968.
Poster printing
Many printing techniques are used to produce posters. While most posters are mass-produced, posters may also be printed by hand or in limited editions. Most posters are printed on one side and left blank on the back, the better for affixing to a wall or other surface. Pin-up sized posters are usually printed on A3 Standard Silk paper in full colour. Upon purchase, most commercially available posters are often rolled up into a cylindrical tube to allow for damage-free transportation. Rolled-up posters can then be flattened under pressure for several hours to regain their original form.
It is possible to use poster creation software to print large posters on standard home or office printers.
Types of posters




Lord Kitchener recruiting poster, for the British army during World War I


Propaganda and political posters
During the First and Second World Wars , recruiting posters became extremely common, and many of them have persisted in the national consciousness, such as the " Lord Kitchener Wants You " posters from the United Kingdom , the " Uncle Sam wants you" posters from the United States, or the " Loose Lips Sink Ships " posters [1] that warned of foreign spies. Posters during wartime were also used for propaganda purposes, persuasion, and motivation, such as the famous Rosie the Riveter posters which exhorted women workers during World War II that "We can do it!". The Soviet Union also produced a plethora of propaganda posters [2] , some of which became iconic representations of the Great Patriotic War . During the democratic revolutions of 1989 in Central and Eastern Europe the poster was very important weapon in the hand of the opposition. Brave printed and hand-made political posters appeared on the Berlin Wall , on the statue of St. Wenseslas in Prague and around the unmarked grave of Imre Nagy in Budapest and the role of them was indispensable for the democratic change. A recent example of an influential political poster is Shepard Fairey 's Barack Obama "HOPE" poster .




Advertising with posters can be a "poor mans advertising media" and sometimes, it seems any surface is suitable.


Advertising posters
Many posters, particularly early posters, were used for advertising products. Posters continue to be used for this purpose, with posters advertising films , music (both concerts and recorded albums), comic books , and travel destinations being particularly notable examples.
Film posters
Main article: Film poster
The film industry quickly discovered that vibrantly coloured posters were an easy way to sell their pictures. Today, posters are produced for most major films, and the collecting of movie posters has become a major hobby. The most valuable poster in the world, of which there is only 1 known copy, is the 1931 stone litho Frankenstein 6-sheet. [ citation needed ]
Comic book posters
The resurgence of comic book popularity in the 1960s led to the mass production of comic book posters in the 1970s and onward. These posters typically feature popular characters in a variety of action poses. The fact that comic books are a niche market means that a given poster usually has a smaller printing run than other genres of poster. Therefore, older posters may be quite sought after by collectors. Promotional posters are usually distributed folded, whereas retail posters intended for home decoration are rolled.
Railway posters
In the early days of steam railways in Britain, the various rail companies advertised their routes and services on simple printed sheets. By the 1850s, with increasing competition and improvements in printing technology, pictorial designs were being incorporated in their advertising posters. The use of graphic artists began to influence the design of the pictorial poster. In 1905, the London and North Western Railway (LNWR) commissioned Norman Wilkinson to produce artwork for a new landscape poster, advertising their rail/steam packet link to Ireland. In 1908, for the Great Northern Railway (GNR), John Hassall produced the famous image of the "Jolly Fisherman" with the "Skegness is so Bracing" slogan. The development of this commercial art form throughout the first half of the 20th century reflected the changes in British society, along with the changing styles of art, architecture and fashion as well as changing patterns of holidaymaking. [3]




A modern event poster


Event posters
Posters advertising events have become common. Any sort of public event, from a rally to a play, may be advertised with posters; a few types of events have become notable for their poster advertisements.Posters are common because this can be hung around places where people go.
Boxing posters
Boxing Posters were used in and around the actual venue to advertise the forthcoming fight, date, ticket prices, and usually consisted of pictures of each boxer. Boxing Posters vary in size and vibrancy, but are not usually smaller than 18x22 inches. In the early days few boxing posters survived the actual event and thus they are indeed very collectible and scarce.
Concert posters
Many concerts , particularly rock concerts , have custom-designed posters that are used for advertisement of the event. These often become collectors items as well.
Educational posters




A poster session at the EPFL


Research posters and "poster sessions"
Main article: Poster session
Posters are used in academia to promote and explain research work. They are typically shown during conferences, either as a complement to a talk or scientific paper, or as a publication. They are of lesser importance than actual articles, but they can be a good introduction to a new piece of research before the paper is published. Poster presentations are often not peer-reviewed , but can instead be submitted, meaning that as many as can fit will be accepted.
Classroom posters
Posters are a standard feature of classrooms worldwide. A typical school in North America will display a variety, including: advertising tie-ins (eg. an historical movie relevant to a current topic of study); alphabet and grammar; numeracy and scientific tables; safety and other instructions; artwork and displays by the students.
Vintage poster restoration/conservation
Poster restoration and conservation. The backing of posters with fabric dates back to 19th century France, where posters were occasionally glued to linen for reinforcement. This provided some protection, but with the passage of time the paper continued to become brittle and was frequently torn by stress. Modern backing techniques have eliminated this problem by using an acid free paper between the poster and the fabric. The adhesive used is wheat paste treated to inhibit mold growth.
Why fabric-back a poster? The principal reason is to provide support for the paper. It also enables the conservator to flatten the folds and to more easily make repairs. Fabric backing also eliminates the waviness that can occur when the poster is framed.
Reversibility is a concept that is important in all conservation work, because today's curators and collectors are only temporary custodians of a cultural object (the poster) that will have continuing and timeless interest for future collectors. We strive to make certain that materials and techniques that are applied to the poster are not harmful over time and are reversible to bring it back to the state in which we found it.
Restoration can dramatically improve the appearance of a poster. Damage caused by clear adhesive tape, residual stains, water marks and dirt can be easily repaired; combining this with the replacement of lost paper can bring the poster back to virtually its original state.
Cheesecake posters
Cheesecake posters, or "pinups," are pictures of attractive women designed to be displayed, first coming to popularity in the 1920s. The popularity of sexy Pin-up girl posters has been erratic in recent decades. Pin-ups such as Betty Grable and Jane Russell were highly popular with soldiers during World War II but much less so during the Vietnam War . The late 1970s and into the beginning of the 1980s were boom years for large posters of television actresses, especially Farrah Fawcett and Cheryl Tiegs .
Fanposter
The goal of creating a Fanposter is to show all or a large portion of devoted fans on one poster which will be presented and can be seen in a place where many other fans or members have access (hallway of a club house, fanzine , fan webpage, public place).




An example of an affirmation poster


Affirmation posters
Main article: Affirmation posters
This refers to decorative posters that are meant to be motivational and inspirational. One popular series has a black background, a scene from nature, and a word such as "Leadership" or "Opportunity." Another version (usually framed and matted) uses a two-image hologram which changes as the viewer walks past.
Band/music posters
Posters that showcase a person's favorite artist or music group are popular in teenagers ' bedrooms, as well as in college dorm rooms and apartments . Many posters have pictures of popular rock bands and artists.
Book posters
Book text on poster is a type of poster design where the entire text of a book (usually a novel) is printed in legible form. This unique and modern design style is commonly characterized by a wall of text with a depiction of an important element of the book by use of negative space , which in this case is also known as white space .
Notable poster artists

Albert Guillaume (1873–1942)
Alfons Mucha (1860–1939)
Achille Mauzan (1883–1952)
Adolphe Mouron Cassandre (1901–1968)
Angelo Cesselon (1922–1992)
David Lance Goines (1945–present)
Eugène Grasset (1845–1917)
Firmin Bouisset (1859–1925)
Gino Boccasile (1901–1952)
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec (1864–1901)
Jean Carlu (1900–1997)
Jean Michel Folon (1934–2005)
John Gilroy (1898–1985)
Jules Chéret (1836–1932)
Leonetto Cappiello (1875–1942)
Paul Colin (1892–1985)
Privat Livemont (1861–1936)
Raymond Savignac (1907–2002)
Róbert Berény (1887–1954)
Sándor Bortnyik (1893–1976)
István Irsai (1896–1968)
Tadeusz Gronowski (1894–1990) ( pl:Tadeusz Gronowski )
Théophile Steinlen (1859–1923)
Tom Eckersley (1914–1995)
Frank Newbould (1887–1951)

Contemporary poster artists

André François
Beautiful Angle
David Tartakover
Dóra Keresztes
Echo Chernik
István Orosz
Mehdi Saeedi
Jan Sawka
Jim Fitzpatrick
Michael Byrne
Milton Glaser
Jean Michel Folon
Paul Ford
Rafal Olbinski
Reza Abedini
Mark Young
Seymour Chwast
Shepard Fairey
Shigeo Fukuda
Stanley Mouse
Wang Xu
Wieslaw Rosocha
Wiktor Sadowski
Syd Brak
Favianna Rodrigues

Gallery








Vin Mariani, Jules Cheret's 1894 poster for the digestif and tonic wine fortified by coca









Official poster for the Exposition Universelle of 1905 in Liège









A sports poster for the Navy Midshipmen American football team









A digital poster illustrating twelve different species of flowers











A WWII propaganda poster with the text "Let's catch him with his Panzers down!"









Poster for the 1911 Ballet Russe season









Jack the Ripper wanted poster issued by the police in 1888









Belle of Nelson poster advertising their sour mash whiskey, shows a Turkish harem of nude white women, and a black man with water pipe in foreground.





Gallery see also

A 1990 Hungarian political poster by Fidesz (Alliance of Young Democrats): Choose! (between Communism represented by the Communist politicians kissing in the upper image, and capitalism represented by the young couple kissing in the lower picture.)
The Tennis Girl poster was an iconic image from the late 1970s'
Death to the Brutes , an anti-war anarchist poster printed in France during the Second World War.

See also



Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Posters





Look up poster in Wiktionary , the free dictionary.



Graphic design
Illustrations
Mediascape
Poster session
Street Poster Art
Swann Galleries
Books on poster
Book text on poster

trade show banners

trade show banners

A banner is a flag or other piece of cloth bearing a symbol, logo, slogan or other message. Banner-making is an ancient craft.
The word derives from late Latin bandum , a cloth out of which a flag is made ( Latin banderia , Italian bandiera ), ( Spanish bandera ). German developed the word to mean an official edict or proclamation and since such written orders often prohibited some form of human activity, bandum assumed the meaning of a ban, control, interdict or excommunication. Banns has the same origin meaning an official proclamation, and abandon means to change loyalty or disobey orders, semantically "to leave the cloth or flag".




Contents


1 Heraldic banners
2 Banners in a religious context

2.1 In Christianity


3 Trade union banners
4 Advertising banners: pre-printed banners and custom banners
5 References
6 See also





//

Heraldic banners
Further information: Heraldic flag
A heraldic banner, also called banner of arms , displays the basic coat of arms only: i.e. it contains the design usually displayed on the shield and omits the crest, helmet or coronet, mantling, supporters, motto or any other elements associated with the coat of arms (for further details of these elements, see heraldry ).
A heraldic banner is usually square or rectangular.
A distinction exists between the heraldic banner and the heraldic standard . The distinction, however, is often misunderstood or ignored. For example the Royal Standard of the United Kingdom is in fact a banner of the royal arms.








The full armorial achievement of the arms of the Kingdom of Scotland (pre- Union of the Crowns ).









The principal charge of the arms as depicted on the escutcheon .









The heraldic banner of the King of Scots ; the Royal Standard of Scotland , depicting the principal charge of the arms.









Heraldic banner of Cardinal Wolsey .





Banners in a religious context




Russian Orthodox Crucession with lantern , processional cross and Khorugvi (banners).


The prophet Isaiah was commanded to raise a banner and exalt his voice ( Isaiah 13:2 KJV ). Habakkuk received a similar order to write a vision upon tables that could be read by one who runs past it ( Habakkuk 2:2 ).
In Christianity
For more on the design and making of church banners, see Banner-making . For banners used in the Eastern Orthodox Church , see Khorugv .
Banners in churches have, in the past, been used mainly for processions , both inside and outside of the church building. However, the emphasis has, in recent years, shifted markedly towards the permanent or transient display of banners on walls or pillars of churches and other places of worship. A famous example of large banners on display is Liverpool R.C. Cathedral , where the banners are designed by a resident artist.
Banners are also used to communicate the testimony of Jesus Christ by evangelists and public ministers engaged in Open Air Preaching .
Trade union banners




Banners of AUT , NATFHE , Cambridge TUC and Cambridge University Students' Union .


In Britain, trade union banners have been made since the 1840s, and at May Day parades, they could be counted in the hundreds. The iconography of these banners included mines, mills, factories, but also visions of the future, showing a land where children and adults were well-fed and living in tidy brick-built houses, where the old and sick were cared for, where the burden of work was lessened by new technology, and where leisure time was increasing. The same kind of banners are also used in many other countries. Many, but not all of them, have red as a dominant colour.
For more on the design and making of these banners, see Banner-making .
Advertising banners: pre-printed banners and custom banners




2009 Michigan Wolverines football team enters Michigan Stadium under the M Club banner as the Michigan Marching Band salutes.






Banner at Wikimania 2005 .


Often fabricated commercially on a plastic background, the banner industry has developed from the traditional cut-vinyl banners to banners printed within large, ultra-wide format inkjet printers on various vinyl and fabric materials using solvent inks and uv-curable inks . [ 1 ]
Banners can be witnessed within the boundaries of many business ventures, marketing to their potential audience. A number of British towns and cities have whole series of banners decorating their city centres, effectively advertising the town or its special features and attractions. Business associates can decide to purchase pre-printed banners which, albeit commonly used, are simple and accessible. Businesses vary, and so does the liberties with banners, the variety is endless and the possibilities with customized banners are endless. While abiding within the legal limits of the court of law, banners can be printed in enormous formats, within a vibrant rich range of full colors. For individuals within a budget, the parameters of a single-side banner are a possibility, which is beneficial when dealing with mass production, or to reach an intended quantity.
Banners can be found plastered behind a window screen, as a billboard, atop skyscrapers to being emblazoned as an blimp's or planes attachment or accessory when routing across communities. As with variable of size and quantity, the number of sides and quality of ink are as much of a crucial factor. In an instance of retail stores which purchase pre-printed clearance banners, or a variety of sale banner. A banner facing underneath or against glass is absorbing exposure from the sun. A banner printed on UV outdoor ink will last several years to a decade where cheaper ink fades and becomes a necessity to being recycled often. [1] Being behind glass, a two-sided banner can be displayed from the inside and out, often building recognition between shoppers and caretakers. Three-sided banners are oftentimes appealing as there is dimension and can be embellished differently. The more sides that exist, the more angles the banner covers, which is a possibility where a two-sided banner doesn't face the viewer from center of the room or streets.
Advertisements on the Internet which carry the shape of a banner are also commonly called "banners". See web banner for more information.
References

^ http://www.signelect.com

See also

Heraldic standard
Sashimono
Nobori
The Star-Spangled Banner
Stainless Banner
Vinyl banners
Web banner
Banners in Northern Ireland
County Clare in Ireland is known as the Banner County .
Vexillum

studio lighting

studio lighting

Lighting or illumination is the deliberate application of light to achieve some aesthetic or practical effect. Lighting includes use of both artificial light sources such as lamps and natural illumination of interiors from daylight . Daylighting (through windows, skylights, etc.) is often used as the main source of light during daytime in buildings given its low cost. Artificial lighting represents a major component of energy consumption, accounting for a significant part of all energy consumed worldwide. Artificial lighting is most commonly provided today by electric lights , but gas lighting , candles , or oil lamps were used in the past, and still are used in certain situations. Proper lighting can enhance task performance or aesthetics, while there can be energy wastage and adverse health effects of poorly designed lighting . Indoor lighting is a form of fixture or furnishing , and a key part of interior design . Lighting can also be an intrinsic component of landscaping .




Contents


1 Fixtures

1.1 Types
1.2 Methods
1.3 Forms of Lighting

1.3.1 Indoor Lighting
1.3.2 Outdoor Lighting




2 Vehicle use
3 Lamps
4 Design and architecture
5 Measurement

5.1 Color Properties
5.2 Light Exposure


6 Energy consumption
7 Health effects
8 Environmental issues
9 Military use
10 Professional organizations

10.1 International
10.2 National


11 See also

11.1 Inventors
11.2 Lists


12 Footnotes
13 Sources
14 External links





//

Fixtures
Main article: Light fixture
Lighting fixtures come in a wide variety of styles for various functions. The most important functions are as a holder for the light source, to provide directed light and to avoid visual glare . Some are very plain and functional, while some are pieces of art in themselves. Nearly any material can be used, so long as it can tolerate the excess heat and is in keeping with safety codes.
An important property of light fixtures is the luminous efficacy or wall-plug efficiency , meaning the amount of usable light emanating from the fixture per used energy, usually measured in lumen per watt . A fixture using replaceable light sources can also have its efficiency quoted as the percentage of light passed from the "bulb" to the surroundings. The more transparent the lighting fixture is, the higher efficacy. Shading the light will normally decrease efficacy but increase the directionality and the visual comfort probability .
Types




A demonstration of the effects of different kinds of lighting


Lighting is classified by intended use as general, localized, or task lighting, depending largely on the distribution of the light produced by the fixture.

Task lighting is mainly functional and is usually the most concentrated, for purposes such as reading or inspection of materials. For example, reading poor-quality reproductions may require task lighting levels up to 1500 lux (150 footcandles ), and some inspection tasks or surgical procedures require even higher levels.
Accent lighting is mainly decorative, intended to highlight pictures , plants , or other elements of interior design or landscaping .
General lighting (sometimes referred to as ambient light [ 1 ] ) fills in between the two and is intended for general illumination of an area. Indoors, this would be a basic lamp on a table or floor, or a fixture on the ceiling . Outdoors, general lighting for a parking lot may be as low as 10-20 lux (1-2 footcandles) since pedestrians and motorists already used to the dark will need little light for crossing the area.

Methods

Downlighting is most common, with fixtures on or recessed in the ceiling casting light downward. This tends to be the most used method, used in both offices and homes. Although it is easy to design it has dramatic problems with glare and excess energy consumption due to large number of fittings.


Uplighting is less common, often used to bounce indirect light off the ceiling and back down. It is commonly used in lighting applications that require minimal glare and uniform general illuminance levels. Uplighting (indirect) uses a diffuse surface to reflect light in a space and can minimize disabling glare on computer displays and other dark glossy surfaces. It gives a more uniform presentation of the light output in operation. However indirect lighting is completely reliant upon the reflectance value of the surface. While indirect lighting can create a diffused and shadow free light effect it can be regarded as an uneconomical lighting principle.


Front lighting is also quite common, but tends to make the subject look flat as its casts almost no visible shadows. Lighting from the side is the less common, as it tends to produce glare near eye level. Backlighting either around or through an object is mainly for accent.





Wall-mounted light with shadows


Forms of Lighting
Indoor Lighting
Forms of lighting include alcove lighting, which like most other uplighting is indirect. This is often done with fluorescent lighting or rope light , or occasionally with neon lighting . It is a form of backlighting.
Soffit or close to wall lighting can be general or a decorative wall-wash, sometimes used to bring out texture (like stucco or plaster ) on a wall, though this may also show its defects as well. The effect depends heavily on the exact type of lighting source used.
Recessed lighting (often called "pot lights" in Canada , "can lights" or 'high hats" in the U.S. ) is popular, with fixtures mounted into the ceiling structure so as to appear flush with it. These downlights can use narrow beam spotlights, or wider- angle floodlights , both of which are bulbs having their own reflectors . There are also downlights with internal reflectors designed to accept common 'A' lamps (light bulbs) which are generally less costly than reflector lamps. Downlights can be incandescent, fluorescent, HID (high intensity discharge) or LED .
Track lighting , invented by Lightolier , was popular at one point because it was much easier to install than recessed lighting, and individual fixtures are decorative and can be easily aimed at a wall . It has regained some popularity recently in low-voltage tracks, which often look nothing like their predecessors because they do not have the safety issues that line-voltage systems have, and are therefore less bulky and more ornamental in themselves. A master transformer feeds all of the fixtures on the track or rod with 12 or 24 volts, instead of each light fixture having its own line-to-low voltage transformer. There are traditional spots and floods, as well as other small hanging fixtures. A modified version of this is cable lighting , where lights are hung from or clipped to bare metal cables under tension .
A sconce is a wall-mounted fixture, particularly one that shines up and sometimes down as well. A torchiere is an uplight intended for ambient lighting. It is typically a floor lamp but may be wall-mounted like a sconce.
The portable or table lamp is probably the most common fixture, found in many homes and offices . The standard lamp and shade that sits on a table is general lighting, while the desk lamp is considered task lighting. Magnifier lamps are also task lighting.




Animated fountain in Moscow 's Square of Europe , lit at night.


The illuminated ceiling was once popular in the 1960s and 1970s but fell out of favor after the 1980s. This uses diffuser panels hung like a suspended ceiling below fluorescent lights, and is considered general lighting. Other forms include neon, which is not usually intended to illuminate anything else, but to actually be an artwork in itself. This would probably fall under accent lighting, though in a dark nightclub it could be considered general lighting.
In a movie theater each step in the aisles is usually marked with a row of small lights, for convenience and safety when the film has started, hence the other lights are off. Traditionally made up of small low wattage, low voltage lamps in a track or translucent tube, these are rapidly being replaced with LED based versions.
Outdoor Lighting




High mast lighting along Highway 401 in Ontario , Canada .


Street Lights are used to light roadways and walkways at night. Some manufacturers are designing LED and photovoltaic luminaires to provide an energy-efficient alternative to traditional street light fixtures [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] .




Floodlights are used to illuminate outdoor playing fields or work zones during nighttime.


Floodlights can be used to illuminate outdoor playing fields or work zones during nighttime hours. The most common type of floodlights are metal halide and high pressure sodium lights.
Beacon lights are positioned at the intersection of two roads to aid in navigation.
Security lights can be used along roadways in urban areas, or behind homes or commercial facilities. These are extremely bright lights used to deter crime. Security lights may include floodlights.
Entry lights can be used outside to illuminate and signal the entrance to a property [ 5 ] . These lights are installed for safety, security, and for decoration.
Underwater accent lighting is also used for koi ponds, fountains, swimming pools and the like.
Vehicle use
Main article: Automotive lighting
Vehicles typically include headlamps and tail lights. Headlamps are white or selective yellow lights placed in the front of the vehicle, designed to illuminate the upcoming road and to make the vehicle more visible. Many manufactures are turning to LED headlights as an energy-efficient alternative to traditional headlamps [ 6 ] . Tail and brake lights are red and emit light to the rear so as to reveal the vehicle's direction of travel to following drivers. White rear-facing reversing lamps indicate that the vehicle's transmission has been placed in the reverse gear, warning anyone behind the vehicle that it is moving backwards, or about to do so. Flashing turn signals on the front, side, and rear of the vehicle indicate an intended change of position or direction.
In addition to lighting for useful purposes, manufacturers would sometimes backlight their logos and or other translucent paneling in the 1970s. In the 1990s, a popular trend was to customize vehicles with neon lighting , especially underneath the body of a car. In the 2000s, neon lighting is increasingly yielding to digital vehicle lighting , in which bright LEDs are placed on the car and operated by a computer which can be customized and programmed to display a range of changing patterns and colors, a technology borrowed from Christmas lights.
Lamps
Main article: Lamp (electrical component)
Commonly called 'light bulbs', lamps are the removable and replaceable portion of a luminaire which converts electrical energy to both visible and non-visible electromagnetic energy. Specialists who work with lighting, carefully avoid energetic units for measuring of the light output of sources of light due to the spectral response of human visual perception . For example, instead of watt per steradian , the special unit candela is used; 1 candela=(1/683) W/steradian for monochromatic light at 555 nm wavelength . Common characteristics used to evaluate lamp quality include efficacy measured in lumens per watt , typical lamp life measured in hours, and Color Rendering Index on a scale of 0 to 100. Cost of replacement lamps is also an important factor in any design. [ 7 ]
Design and architecture
Main article: Architectural lighting design




Lighting without windows: The Pantheon in the 18th century, painted by Giovanni Paolo Panini . [ 8 ]


Lighting design as it applies to the built environment, also known as 'architectural lighting design', is both a science and an art. Comprehensive lighting design requires consideration of the amount of functional light provided, the energy consumed, as well as the aesthetic impact supplied by the lighting system. Some buildings, like surgical centers and sports facilities, are primarily concerned with providing the appropriate amount of light for the associated task. Some buildings, like warehouses and office buildings, are primarily concerned with saving money through the energy efficiency of the lighting system. Other buildings, like casinos and theatres, are primarily concerned with enhancing the appearance and emotional impact of architecture through lighting systems. Therefore, it is important that the sciences of light production and luminaire photometrics are balanced with the artistic application of light as a medium in our built environment. These electrical lighting systems should also consider the impacts of, and ideally be integrated with, daylighting systems. Factors involved in lighting design are essentially the same as those discussed above in energy conservation analysis.
For simple installations, hand-calculations based on tabular data can be used to provide an acceptable lighting design. More critical or optimized designs now routinely use mathematical modeling on a computer.
Based on the positions and mounting heights of the fixtures, and their photometric characteristics, the proposed lighting layout can be checked for uniformity and quantity of illumination. For larger projects or those with irregular floor plans, lighting design software can be used. Each fixture has its location entered, and the reflectance of walls, ceiling, and floors can be entered. The computer program will then produce a set of contour charts overlaid on the project floor plan, showing the light level to be expected at the working height. More advanced programs can include the effect of light from windows or skylights, allowing further optimization of the operating cost of the lighting installation.
The Zonal Cavity Method is used as a basis for both hand, tabulated, and computer calculations. This method uses the reflectance coefficients of room surfaces to model the contribution to useful illumination at the working level of the room due to light reflected from the walls and the ceiling. Simplified photometric values are usually given by fixture manufacturers for use in this method.
Computer modeling of outdoor flood lighting usually proceeds directly from photometric data. The total lighting power of a lamp is divided into small solid angular regions. Each region is extended to the surface which is to be lit and the area calculated, giving the light power per unit of area. Where multiple lamps are used to illuminate the same area, each one's contribution is summed. Again the tabulated light levels (in lux or foot-candles ) can be presented as contour lines of constant lighting value, overlaid on the project plan drawing. Hand calculations might only be required at a few points, but computer calculations allow a better estimate of the uniformity and lighting level.
Practical lighting design must take into account the gradual decrease in light levels from each lamp owing to lamp aging, lamp burnout, and dirt accumulation on fixture and lamp surfaces. Empirically-established depreciation factors are listed in lighting design handbooks.
Measurement
Luminance is a photometric measure of the density of luminous intensity in a given direction. It describes the amount of light that passes through or is emitted from a particular area, and falls within a given solid angle . The SI unit for luminance is candela per square metre (cd/m 2 ). The CGS unit of luminance is the stilb , which is equal to one candela per square centimetre or 10 kcd/m 2 .
Color Properties
To define light source color properties, the lighting industry predominantly relies on two metrics, correlated color temperature (CCT), commonly used as an indication of the apparent “warmth” or “coolness” of the light emitted by a source, and color rendering index (CRI), an indication of the light source’s ability to make objects appear natural.
However, these two metrics, developed in the last century, are facing increased challenges and criticisms as new types of light sources, particularly light emitting diodes (LEDs), become more prevalent in the market.
For example, in order to meet the expectations for good color rendering in retail applications, research [ 9 ] suggests using the well-established CRI along with another metric called gamut area index (GAI). GAI represents the relative separation of object colors illuminated by a light source; the greater the GAI, the greater the apparent saturation or vividness of the object colors. As a result, light sources which balance both CRI and GAI are generally preferred over ones that have only high CRI or only high GAI. [ 10 ]
Light Exposure
Typical measurements of light have used a Dosimeter. Dosimeters measure an individual's or an object's exposure to something in the environment, such as light dosimeters and ultraviolet dosimeters.
In order to specifically measure the amount of light entering the eye, personal circadian light meter called the Daysimeter has been developed [ 11 ] . This is the first device created to accurately measure and characterize light (intensity, spectrum, timing, and duration) entering the eye that affects the human body's clock.
The device is a small, head-mounted device which measures an individual's daily rest and activity patterns, as well as exposure to circadian light—short-wavelength light, particularly natural light from the blue sky—that stimulates the circadian system. The device measures activity and light together at regular time intervals and electronically stores and logs its operating temperature. The Daysimeter can gather data for up to 30 days for analysis [ 12 ] .
Energy consumption
Artificial lighting consumes a significant part of all electrical energy consumed worldwide. In homes and offices from 20 to 50 percent of total energy consumed is due to lighting. [ 13 ] Most importantly, for some buildings over 90 percent of lighting energy consumed can be an unnecessary expense through over-illumination . [ 13 ] The cost of that lighting can be substantial. A single 100 W light bulb used just 6 hours a day can cost over $25 per year to use (.12/kWh). Thus lighting represents a critical component of energy use today, especially in large office buildings where there are many alternatives for energy usage in lighting. There are several strategies available to minimize energy requirements in any building:

Specification of illumination requirements for each given use area.
Analysis of lighting quality to ensure that adverse components of lighting (for example, glare or incorrect color spectrum ) are not biasing the design.
Integration of space planning and interior architecture (including choice of interior surfaces and room geometries) to lighting design.
Design of time of day use that does not expend unnecessary energy.
Selection of fixture and lamp types that reflect best available technology for energy conservation .
Training of building occupants to use lighting equipment in most efficient manner.
Maintenance of lighting systems to minimize energy wastage.
Use of natural light - some big box stores are being built (ca 2006 on) with numerous plastic bubble skylights, in many cases completely obviating the need for interior artificial lighting for many hours of the day.
Load shedding can help reduce the power requested by individuals to the main power supply. Load shedding can be done on an individual level, at a building level, or even at a regional level.

Health effects
Main articles: Full-spectrum light , Over-illumination , and Light effects on circadian rhythm
It is valuable to provide the correct light intensity and color spectrum for each task or environment. Otherwise, energy not only could be wasted but over-illumination can lead to adverse health and psychological effects.
Specification of illumination requirements is the basic concept of deciding how much illumination is required for a given task. Clearly, much less light is required to illuminate a hallway or bathroom compared to that needed for a word processing work station. Prior to 1970 (and too often even today), a lighting engineer would simply apply the same level of illumination design to all parts of the building without considering usage. Generally speaking, the energy expended is proportional to the design illumination level. For example, a lighting level of 80 footcandles might be chosen for a work environment involving meeting rooms and conferences, whereas a level of 40 footcandles could be selected for building hallways. If the hallway standard simply emulates the conference room needs, then twice the amount of energy will be consumed as is needed for hallways. Unfortunately, most of the lighting standards even today have been specified by industrial groups who manufacture and sell lighting, so that a historical commercial bias exists in designing most building lighting, especially for office and industrial settings. Beyond the energy factors being considered, it is important not to over-design illumination, lest adverse health effects such as headache frequency, stress, and increased blood pressure be induced by the higher lighting levels. In addition, glare or excess light can decrease worker efficiency. [ 14 ]
Analysis of lighting quality particularly emphasizes use of natural lighting, but also considers spectral content if artificial light is to be used. Not only will greater reliance on natural light reduce energy consumption, but will favorably impact human health and performance. New studies have shown that the performance of students is influenced by the time and duration of daylight in their regular schedules. Designing school facilities to incorporate the right types of light at the right time of day for the right duration may improve student performance and well-being. Similarly, designing lighting systems that maximize the right amount of light at the appropriate time of day for the elderly may help relieve symptoms of Alzheimer's Disease. The human circadian system is entrained to a 24-hour light-dark pattern that mimics the earth’s natural light/dark pattern. When those patterns are disrupted, they disrupt the natural circadian cycle. Circadian disruption may lead to numerous health problems including breast cancer, seasonal affective disorder, delayed sleep phase syndrome, and other ailments [ 15 ] [ 16 ] .
Environmental issues
Kerosene and whale-oil lamps
In 1849, Dr. Abraham Gesner , a Canadian geologist, devised a method where kerosene could be distilled from petroleum . Earlier coal-gas methods had been used for lighting since the 1820s, but they were expensive. Gesner's kerosene was cheap, easy to produce, could be burned in existing lamps, and did not produce an offensive odor as did most whale oil. It could be stored indefinitely, unlike whale oil, which would eventually spoil. The American petroleum boom began in the 1850s. By the end of the decade there were 30 kerosene plants operating in the United States. The cheaper, more efficient fuel began to drive whale oil out of the market. John D. Rockefeller was most responsible for the commercial success of kerosene. He set up a network of kerosene distilleries which would later become Standard Oil , thus completely abolishing the need for whale-oil lamps. [ 17 ]
Compact fluorescent lamps
Compact fluorescent lamps (aka 'CFLs') use less power to supply the same amount of light as an incandescent lamp . Due to the ability to reduce electric consumption, many organizations have undertaken measures to encourage the adoption of CFLs. Some electric utilities and local governments have subsidized CFLs or provided them free to customers as a means of reducing electric demand. For a given light output, CFLs use between one fifth and one quarter of the power of an equivalent incandescent lamp . One of the simplest and quickest ways for a household or business to become more energy efficient is to adopt CFLs as the main lamp source, as suggested by the Alliance for Climate Protection
LED lamps
LED lamps have been advocated as the newest and best environmental lighting method. [ 18 ] According to the Energy Saving Trust, LED lamps use only 10% power compared to a standard incandescent bulb, where compact fluorescent lamps use 20% and energy saving halogen lamps 70%. A downside is still the initial cost, which is higher than that of compact fluorescent lamps. However, when the life expectancy and other factors are incorporated, regular LED's are not more costly than CFL lamps. General Electric expects to begin producing organic LED's for architectural use by 2010. [ 19 ]
Military use



This section requires expansion .


From a military standpoint, lighting is a critical part of the battlefield conditions. [ 20 ] Shadows are good places to hide, while bright areas are more exposed. It is often beneficial to fight with the Sun or other light source behind you, giving your enemy disturbing visual glare and partially hiding your own movements in backlight . If natural light is not present searchlights and flares can be used. However the use of light may disclose your own hidden position and modern warfare have seen increased use of night vision through the use of infrared cameras and image intensifiers .
Flares can also be used by the military to mark positions, usually for targeting, but laser-guided and GPS weapons have eliminated this need for the most part.
Professional organizations
International
The International Commission on Illumination (CIE) is an international authority and standard defining organization on color and lighting. Publishing widely used standard metrics such as various CIE color spaces and the color rendering index .
The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA), in conjunction with organizations like ANSI and ASHRAE , publishes guidelines, standards, and handbooks that allow categorization of the illumination needs of different built environments. Manufacturers of lighting equipment publish photometric data for their products, which defines the distribution of light released by a specific luminaire. This data is typically expressed in standardized form defined by the IESNA.
The International Association of Lighting Designers (IALD) is an organization which focuses on the advancement of lighting design education and the recognition of independent professional lighting designers. Those fully independent designers who meet the requirements for professional membership in the association typically append the abbreviation IALD to their name.
The Professional Lighting Designers Association (PLDA), formerly known as ELDA is an organisation focusing on the promotion of the profession of Architectural Lighting Design. They publish a monthly newsletter and organise different events throughout the world.
The National Council on Qualifications for the Lighting Professions (NCQLP) offers the Lighting Certification Examination which tests rudimentary lighting design principles. Individuals who pass this exam become ‘Lighting Certified’ and may append the abbreviation LC to their name. This certification process is one of three national (U.S.) examinations (the others are CLEP and CLMC) in the lighting industry and is open not only to designers, but to lighting equipment manufacturers, electric utility employees, etc. Generally speaking there is no legal or practical requirement for the lighting design team to possess the certifications discussed.
The Professional Lighting And Sound Association ( PLASA ) is a UK-based trade organisation representing the 500+ individual and corporate members drawn from the technical services sector. Its members include manufacturers and distributors of stage and entertainment lighting, sound, rigging and similar products and services, and affiliated professionals in the area. They lobby for and represent the interests of the industry at various levels, interacting with government and regulating bodies and presenting the case for the entertainment industry. Example subjects of this representation include the ongoing review of radio frequencies (which may or may not affect the radio bands in which wireless microphones and other devices use) and engaging with the issues surrounding the introduction of the RoHS ( Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive ) regulations.
National

World Institute of Lighting and development Corporation
Association de Concepteurs Eclairage (ACE) in France .
Associazione Professionisti dell'Illuminazione (APIL) in Italy .
Hellenic Illumination Committee (HIC) in Greece .
Indian Society of Lighting Engineers (ISLE)
Institution of Lighting Engineers (ILE) in United Kingdom .
Schweizerische Licht Gesellschaft (SLG) in Switzerland .
Society of Light and Lighting (SLL), part of the Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers in United Kingdom .

See also


3D computer graphics
Anglepoise lamp successful and innovative desk lamp design.
Automotive lighting
Banning of incandescent lightbulbs
Bug zapper
Candlepower
Domotics computer controlled home lighting.
Fishing light attractor underwater lights to attract fish
Hospital lighting
Light fixture
Light in school buildings
Light pollution
Lighting designer
Lighting control systems for a buildings or residences.
Lighting for the elderly
List of Lighting Design Software
Luminous efficacy
Over-illumination
Seasonal affective disorder
Stage lighting
Three-point lighting technique used in both still photography and in film
Effect Lighting
Street lighting


Inventors

Joseph Swan , carbonized-thread filament incandescent lamp
Alexander Nikolayevich Lodygin , carbon-rod filament incandescent lamp
Nikola Tesla , fluorescent and gas-discharge lamps
Thomas Edison , long-lasting incandescent lamp with high-resistance filament
John Richardson Wigham , lighthouse engineer

Lists

List of environmental health hazards
List of light sources
Timeline of lighting technology

displays

displays

Display advertising is a type of advertising that typically contains text (i.e., copy ), logos, photographs or other images, location maps, and similar items. In periodicals , display advertising can appear on the same page as, or on the page adjacent to, general editorial content. In contrast, classified advertising generally appears in a distinct section, was traditionally text-only, and was available in a limited selection of typefaces .
Display advertisements are not required to contain images, audio, or video: Textual advertisements are also used where text may be more appropriate or more effective. An example of textual advertisements is commercial messages sent to mobile device users , emails etc.,
One common form of display advertising involves billboards .
Yahoo is the leader in online display advertising. [ 1 ]
[ edit ] On the Internet
See also: Web banner  and Cost per impression
Display advertising also appears on the Internet , as a form of internet marketing . Display advertising appears on web pages in many forms, including web banners . These banners can consist of static or animated images, as well as interactive media that may include audio and video elements. Adobe Systems Flash or .gif are the preferred presentation formats for such interactive advertisements. The Interactive Advertising Bureau , an industry trade group, sets some standards for online shapes.
Display advertising on the internet is widely used for branding as opposed to direct response, or search advertising. This is why metrics like interaction time are becoming more relevant. However, this may change in the future as display advertising is becoming much more targeted to users much like search engine ads are extremely relevant to what users are looking for. Display advertisers use cookie and browser history to determine demographics and interests of users and target appropriate ads to those browsers.
Banner ad standards have changed over the years to larger sizes, in part due to increased resolution of standard monitors and browsers, in part to provide advertisers with more impact for their investment. The standards continue to evolve. Posters, fliers, transit cards, tents, scale models are examples of display advertising

scanvas back drops

scanvas back drops

Canvas is an extremely heavy-duty plain-woven fabric used for making sails , tents , marquees , backpacks , and other functions where sturdiness is required. It is also popularly used as a painting surface, typically stretched, and on fashion handbags and shoes.




Contents


1 Etymology
2 Physical characteristics
3 Canvas for painting
4 Canvas as a compound agent
5 Splined canvas, stretched canvas and canvas boards
6 Canvas used for canoes
7 Canvas used for trampolines
8 Non-traditional uses for stretched canvas
9 Canvas Types
10 Canvas Products
11 See also
12 References





//

Etymology
The word canvas is derived from the 13 th century Anglo-French canevaz and the Old-French canevas . Both may be derivatives of the Vulgar Latin cannapaceus for "made of hemp ," [ 1 ] originating from the Greek Κάνναβις , Cannabis .
Physical characteristics
Modern canvas is usually made of cotton, although historically speaking, it was made from hemp. It differs from other heavy cotton fabrics, such as denim , in being plain weave rather than twill weave. Canvas comes in two basic types: plain and duck . The threads in duck canvas are more tightly woven. The term duck comes from the Dutch word for cloth, doek . In the United States , canvas is classified in two ways: by weight (ounces per square yard) and by a graded number system. The numbers run in reverse of the weight so a number 10 canvas is lighter than number 4.
Canvas for painting
Canvas has become the most common support medium for oil painting , replacing wooden panels . One of the earliest surviving oils on canvas is a French Madonna with angels from around 1410 in the Gemäldegalerie, Berlin . However, panel painting remained more common until the 16th century in Italy and the 17th century in Northern Europe. Mantegna and Venetian artists were among those leading the change; Venetian sail canvas was readily available and regarded as the best quality.
Canvas is typically stretched across a wooden frame called a stretcher , and may be coated with gesso before it is to be used; this is to prevent oil paint from coming into direct contact with the canvas fibres, which will eventually cause the canvas to decay. A traditional and flexible chalk gesso is composed of lead carbonate and linseed oil, applied over a rabbit skin glue ground; a variation using titanium white pigment and calcium carbonate is rather brittle and susceptible to cracking. As lead-based paint is poisonous, care has to be taken in using it. Various alternative and more flexible canvas primers are commercially available, the most popular being a synthetic latex paint composed of titanium dioxide and calcium carbonate, bound with a thermo-plastic emulsion. Many artists have painted onto unprimed canvas, such as Jackson Pollock [ 2 ] , Kenneth Noland , Francis Bacon , Helen Frankenthaler , Dan Christensen , Larry Zox , Ronnie Landfield , Color Field painters, Lyrical Abstractionists and others.
Early canvas was made of linen , sturdy brownish fabric of considerable strength. Linen is particularly suitable for the use of oil paint . In the early 20th century, cotton canvas, often referred to as "cotton duck", came into use. Linen is composed of higher quality material, and remains popular with many professional artists, especially those who work with oil paint . Cotton duck, which stretches more fully and has an even, mechanical weave, offers a more economical alternative. The advent of acrylic paint has greatly increased the popularity and use of cotton duck canvas. Linen and cotton derive from two entirely different plants, the flax plant and the cotton plant.
Gesso-ed canvases on stretchers are also available. These pre-stretched, pre-primed canvases are suitable for all but the most exacting professional standards. They are available in a variety of weights: light-weight is about 4 oz. or 5 oz.; medium-weight is about 7 oz. or 8 oz.; heavy-weight is about 10 oz. or 12 oz. They are prepared with two or three coats of gesso and are ready for use straight away. Artists desiring greater control of their painting surface may add a coat or two of their preferred gesso. Professional artists who wish to work on canvas may prepare their own canvas in the traditional manner.
One of the most outstanding differences between modern painting techniques and those of the Flemish and Dutch Masters is in the preparation of the canvas. "Modern" techniques take advantage of both the canvas texture as well as those of the paint itself. Renaissance masters took extreme measures to ensure that none of the texture of the canvas came through. This required a painstaking, months-long process of layering the raw canvas with (usually) lead-white paint, then polishing the surface, and then repeating. [ 3 ] The final product had little resemblance to fabric, but instead had a glossy, enamel-like finish. This flat surface was crucial in attaining photographic realism.
With a properly prepared canvas, the painter will find that each subsequent layer of color glides on in a "buttery" manner, and that with the proper consistency of application (fat over lean technique), a painting entirely devoid of brushstrokes can be achieved. A warm iron is applied over a piece of wet cotton to flatten the wrinkles.
Canvas can also be printed on using offset or specialist digital printers to create canvas prints . This process of digital inkjet printing is popularly referred to as Giclée . After printing, the canvas can be wrapped around a stretcher and displayed.
Canvas as a compound agent
From the 13th century onward, canvas was used as a covering layer on Pavise shields. The canvas was applied to the wooden surface of the Pavise, covered with multiple layers of gesso and often richly painted in tempera technique. Finally, the surface was sealed with a transparent varnish. While the gessoed canvas was a perfect painting surface, the primary purpose of the canvas application may have been the strengthening of the wooden shield corpus in a manner not unlike to modern Glass-reinforced plastic .
Splined canvas, stretched canvas and canvas boards
Splined canvases differ from traditional side-stapled canvas in that canvas is attached with a spline at the rear of the frame. This allows the artist to incorporate painted edges into the artwork itself without staples at the sides, and the artwork can be displayed without a frame. Splined canvas can be restretched by adjusting the spline.
Stapled canvases stay stretched tighter over a longer period of time, but are more difficult to re-stretch when the need arises.
Canvas boards are made of cardboard with canvas stretched over and glued to a cardboard backing, and sealed on the backside. The canvas is typically linen primed for a certain type of paint. They are primarily used by artists for quick studies .
Canvas used for canoes




Stretching canvas on a canoe






Wood-and-canvas canoe built by Joe Seliga


Wood-and-canvas canoes are made by fastening an external waterproofed canvas shell to a wooden hull formed with white cedar planks and ribs. These canoes evolved directly from birchbark construction. Maine was the location of the development of commercial wood-and-canvas canoes. E. H. Gerrish, of Bangor, is now recognized as the first person to produce wood-and-canvas canoes commercially, but other Maine builders soon followed, including, B. N. Morris, of Veazie, E. M. White, of Old Town, and, of course, the Gray family of the Old Town Canoe Co. In the adjoining Canadian province of New Brunswick, from the late 1800s until being disbanded in 1979, the Chestnut Canoe Company, along with the Old Town Canoe Company in Maine, became the pre-eminent producers of wood-and-canvas canoes. American President Teddy Roosevelt purchased Chestnut canoes for a South American expedition. Wood-and-canvas canoes have undergone a resurgence in recent years, spurred in part by the Wooden Canoe Heritage Association [ 4 ] . Builders abound, including Jerry Stelmok, Rollin Thurlow, Ken Solway, Joe Seliga , and many others.
Canvas used for trampolines
Canvas has become a very popular choice of use for trampoline manufacturers in the last decade. As the number of trampoline sales has increased in the UK, so has the amount of canvas used in order to make them. Cheaper trampolines often substitute a less durable woven fabric in place of canvas, making them more apt to damage when used simultaneously by more than one person. The more expensive canvas can endure multiple-person use.
Non-traditional uses for stretched canvas
It has become popular to use the myriad of stretched canvasses sizes and shapes for unconventional creative expression. Artists can create miniature works on business card sized stretched canvas and use them as trading cards to make connections with other artists. Many artists use canvas for altered art pieces as well as for scrapbook pages—because stretched canvas is available in many sizes, from miniatures to wall size, it is used for decoupage and needlework projects, made into lamps, or painted simply for home decor.
Canvas Types
Waterproof canvas
Water Resistant Canvas
Fire Proof Canvas
Dyed Canvas
Stripe Canvas
Printed Canvas
Canvas Products
Canvas tent
Canvas tarpaulins
Canvas Bags
Canvas Covers
See also



Look up canvas in Wiktionary , the free dictionary.



Cannabis
Canvas print
Marine canvas
Plastic canvas

stage curtains

stage curtains

Theater drapes and stage curtains are large pieces of cloth that are designed to mask backstage areas from spectators. They come in various types, each designed for a different purpose, though most are made from black or other dark colored, light-absorbing material such as heavyweight velour . [ 1 ]
Proscenium stages use a greater variety of drapes than arena or thrust stages . In proscenium theaters, drapes are typically suspended from battens (i.e., they are "flown", in theater terminology) that are controlled by a fly system . When a drape is flown, the task of adjusting its height for best masking effect is simplified and, in the case of a drape that must be moved during a performance, this enables the drape to be quickly raised above the proscenium arch—thus positioning it out of view of spectators—or lowered to any arbitrary height above the stage, as required.







Contents


1 Types of drapes and curtains

1.1 Grand drapes
1.2 False proscenium
1.3 Legs and borders
1.4 Scrims
1.5 Backdrops
1.6 Cycloramas


2 References
3 See also





//




Types of drapes and curtains
Grand drapes




Austrian (or braille or contour) curtain.


The front curtain , which is variously called a grand drape , act curtain , house curtain , house drape , main drape or, in the UK, tabs , hangs upstage (i.e., toward the rear of the stage) of the proscenium arch. There are several common types of front curtains:

In smaller theaters, they often consist of two curtains which part horizontally (known as a traveler ).
In larger theaters, they usually open vertically, disappearing out of sight into the fly tower. This style of opening is known as a guillotine reveal, after the famous execution tool.
A single curtain which covers the entire opening by moving horizontally is called a wipe .
A tab or tableau curtain gathers the two sections of fabric up and to the sides (in a "French Action") and usually forms a draped effect when it is opened.
An Austrian , braille or contour curtain is suspended from a batten and either raised or lowered in order to expose, or close, the stage. It has a characteristic set of folds and may also be known as a Roman Drape.
A Venetian or profile curtain is similar in appearance to the Austrian drape, but each individual pleat can be flown independently, allowing the curtain to be opened to various heights or configurations.

False proscenium
Hard teasers and tormentors are flat, horizontal and vertical (respectively) pieces that are located just upstage of the grand drape. Together, one hard teaser and a pair of tormentors (one on each side of the stage) are frequently used to form a reduced-size "false proscenium" within the frame of the actual theater proscenium. Hard teasers and tormentors are typically covered with thin plywood, which in turn is covered with dark colored, light-absorbing material. The tormentor is usually flown from a dedicated batten so that its height can be independently adjusted so as to optimize its masking of the flies. [ 1 ]
In some productions, a show portal is used in place of a false proscenium formed by tormentors and hard teasers. This is a decorative "frame" for the stage which also serves to mask backstage areas, just as tormentors and hard teasers would. [ 1 ]
Legs and borders




Legs masking the theater wings


Legs are tall, narrow stage drapes that are used to mask the wings on either side of the stage. Borders , which are also sometimes called teasers , are wide, short draperies that span the width of the stage; these are used to mask lights and scenery that have been raised into the fly loft. Legs and borders are typically made from a heavy, light-absorbing material similar to that of other stage drapes. Typically, a set of two legs, one on each side of the stage, and one border, is used to form a complete masking "frame" around the stage. Several such sets of legs and borders are typically employed at varying distances upstage from the proscenium.

power card

power card

web posting

web posting

confrences

confrences

Business conferences are events organized by an association , individual, publication or private company for the purpose of networking , education or to discuss a business topic with a range of speakers.
They can also be organized by either a non-profit or for-profit organization. The latter is called a conference company .
Business conferences are often held at convention centers and large hotels with conference facilities .
See also

Convention center
Conference room
Meeting
Awayday
business trip
Event Planning and Production

client testimonials

client testimonials

In promotion and of advertising , a testimonial or show consists of a written or spoken statement, sometimes from a person figure, sometimes from a private citizen, extolling the virtue of some product . The term " testimonial " most commonly applies to the sales-pitches attributed to ordinary citizens, whereas " endorsement " usually applies to pitches by celebrities . See also Testify , Testimony , for historical context and etymology. Testimonials can be part of communal marketing .




Pope Leo XIII endorses " Vin Mariani ", a patent medicine containing cocaine .


Measuring the use of celebrities in marketing programs
Advertisers have attempted to quantify and qualify the use of celebrities in their marketing campaigns by evaluating their awareness, appeal, and relevance to a brand's image and the celebrity's influence on consumer buying behavior.
For example, Omnicom agency Davie Brown Entertainment has created an independent index for brand marketers and advertising agencies that determines a celebrity’s ability to influence brand affinity and consumer purchase intent. According to the Wall Street Journal , the so-called " Davie-Brown Index " will "enable advertisers and ad-agency personnel to determine if a particular public figure will motivate consumers who see them in an ad to purchase the product advertised."
Celebrity endorsements have proven very successful in China where, due to increasing consumerism, it is considered a status symbol to purchase an endorsed product. On August 1, 2007 laws were passed banning healthcare professionals and public figures such as movie stars or pop singers from appearing in advertisements for drugs or nutritional supplements . A spokesperson stated: " A celebrity appearing in drug advertising is more likely to mislead consumers, therefore, the state must consider controlling medical advertisements and strengthen the management of national celebrities appearing in medical advertisements. " China had already banned its own athletes from taking part in any advertising and public relations work in the year 2006.

trade shows

trade shows

A trade fair ( trade show or expo ) is an exhibition organized so that companies in a specific industry can showcase and demonstrate their latest products, service, study activities of rivals and examine recent market trends and opportunities . In contrast to consumer fairs , only some trade fairs are open to the public, while others can only be attended by company representatives (members of the trade, e.g. professionals ) and members of the press , therefore trade shows are classified as either "Public" or "Trade Only". A few fairs are hybrids of the two; one example is the Frankfurt Book Fair , which is trade-only for its first three days and open to the general public on its final two days. They are held on a continuing basis in virtually all markets and normally attract companies from around the globe. For example, in the U.S. there are currently over 2500 [ citation needed ] trade shows held every year, and several online directories have been established to help organizers, attendees, and marketers identify appropriate events.




Contents


1 Trade fairs in history
2 Contemporary trade fairs
3 List of major trade fairs
4 See also
5 References





//

Trade fairs in history
Modern trade fairs follow in the tradition of trade fairs established in late medieval Europe, in the era of merchant capitalism . In this era, produce and craft producers visited towns for trading fairs, to sell and showcase products.
Contemporary trade fairs
Trade fairs often involve a considerable marketing investment by participating companies. Costs include space rental, design and construction of trade show displays , telecommunications and networking, travel, accommodations, and promotional literature and items to give to attendees. In addition, costs are incurred at the show for services such as electrical, booth cleaning, internet services, and drayage (also known as material handling). Consequently, cities often promote trade shows as a means of economic development.
Exhibitors attending the event are required to use an exhibitor manual or online exhibitor manual to order their required services and complete any necessary paperwork such as health and safety declarations. An increasing number of trade fairs are happening online, and these events are called virtual tradeshows . They are increasing in popularity due to their relatively low cost and because there is no need to travel whether you are attending or exhibiting.

celbrity functions

celbrity functions

media solutions

media solutions

Voice Over Sound booth

Voice Over Sound booth

Voice-over (also known as off-camera or off-stage commentary ) is a production technique where a voice which is not part of the narrative (non- diegetic ) is used in a radio , television , film , theatre , or other presentation . [ 1 ] The voice-over may be spoken by someone who appears elsewhere in the production or by a specialist voice actor .




Contents


1 Voice-over techniques

1.1 As a character device
1.2 As a creative device
1.3 As an educational or descriptive device
1.4 As a commercial device
1.5 As a translation device


2 Prominent or iconic voice-over artists
3 See also
4 External links
5 Notes





//

Voice-over techniques
As a character device
In the 1956 film version of Herman Melville 's Moby-Dick , Richard Basehart , as Ishmael, narrates the story and sometimes comments on the action in voice-over, as does William Holden in the films Sunset Boulevard and The Counterfeit Traitor , as well as John Mills in David Lean 's Great Expectations (based on Charles Dickens 's novel) and Michael York in a television remake of the book.
Voice-over technique is likewise used to give voices and personalities to animated characters. Among the most noteworthy and versatile of whom include Mel Blanc , Daws Butler , Don Messick and June Foray . Legendary NBC announcer Don Pardo has also done many voice-overs .
As a creative device
In film, the film-maker places the sound of a human voice (or voices) over images shown on the screen that may or may not be related to the images being shown. Consequently, voice-overs are sometimes used to create ironic counterpoint. Also, sometimes they can be random voices not directly connected to the people seen on the screen. In works of fiction, the voice-over is often by a character reflecting back on his or her past, or by a person external to the story who usually has a more complete knowledge of the events in the film than the other characters.
Voice-overs are often used to create the effect of storytelling by a character/omniscient narrator . For example, in The Usual Suspects , the character of Roger "Verbal" Kint has voice-over segments as he is recounting details of a crime. Other examples of storytelling voice-overs can be heard in Gattaca , Blade Runner , The Shawshank Redemption , Big Fish , How to Train Your Dragon , Moulin Rouge! , The Postman Always Rings Twice , Raising Arizona , Goodfellas and Clash of the Titans .
Sometimes, voice-over can be used to aid continuity in edited versions of films, in order for the audience to gain a better understanding of what has gone on between scenes. This was done when the 1948 Joan of Arc , starring Ingrid Bergman , turned out to be far from the box-office and critical hit that was expected, and was edited down from 145 minutes to 100 minutes for its second run in theatres. The edited version, which circulated for years, used narration to conceal the fact that large chunks of the film had been cut. In the full-length version, restored in 1998 and released on DVD in 2004, the voice-over narration is heard only at the beginning of the film.
The genre of film noir is especially associated with the voice-over technique.
In radio, voice-overs are an integral part of the success of the radio programme. Although the announcer holds the prestige and claims all the glory, it is the voice-over artist that is the real drive behind the show. One example is David M. Green's Summer Pow-Wow [1] and his voice-over artist, Tim Wray.
As an educational or descriptive device
The voice-over has many applications in non-fiction as well. Television news is often presented as a series of video clips of newsworthy events, with voice-over by the reporters describing the significance of the scenes being presented; these are interspersed with straight video of the news anchors describing stories for which video is not shown.
Television networks such as The History Channel and the Discovery Channel make extensive use of voice-overs. On NBC , the television show Starting Over used Sylvia Villagran as the voice-over narrator to tell a story.
Live sports broadcasts are usually shown as extensive voice-overs by expert announcers over video of the sporting event.
Game shows formerly made extensive use of voice-overs to introduce contestants and describe available or awarded prizes, but this technique has diminished as shows have moved toward predominantly cash prizes.
Voice-over commentary by a leading critic, historian, or by the production personnel themselves is often a prominent feature of the release of feature films or documentaries on DVDs .
As a commercial device
The commercial use of voice-over in advertising has been popular since the beginning of radio broadcasting.
In the early years, before effective sound recording and mixing, announcements were produced "live" and at-once in a studio with the entire cast, crew and, usually, orchestra. A corporate sponsor hired a producer, who hired writers and voice actors to perform comedy or drama.
The industry expanded very rapidly with the advent of television in the 1950s and the age of highly produced serial radio shows ended. The ability to record high-quality sound on magnetic tape also created opportunities, as has the proliferation of home computers capable of recording, often using inexpensive (even free) software and a microphone of reasonable quality.
Manufacturers will often use a distinctive voice to help them with brand messaging, often retaining talent to a long term exclusive contract.
As a translation device
Main article: Voice-over translation
In some countries, such as Russia and Poland , a voice-over provided by a single artist is commonly used on television as a language localization technique, as an alternative to full dubbing .
In Bulgaria , voice-over translation is also common, but each film (or episode) is normally voiced by at least four actors. The voice artists try to match the original voice and preserve the intonation. The main reason for the use of this type of translation is that unlike synchronized voice translation, it takes a relatively short time to produce as there is no need to synchronize the voices with the character's lip movements, which is compensated by the quieted original audio. When there is no speaking in the film for some time, the original sound is turned up. Recently, as more films are distributed with separate voice and noises-and-music tracks, some voice-over translations in Bulgaria are produced by only turning down the voice track, in this way not affecting the other sounds. One actor always reads the translation crew's names over the show's ending credits (except for when there are dialogs over the credits).
Prominent or iconic voice-over artists

Avdhessh Arya
Ernie Anderson
Flo Ayres
Hank Azaria
Tom Baker
Bob Bergen
Mel Blanc
Jim Cummings
Alan Bleviss
Doug Boggs
Johnny Yong Bosch
Beverly Bremers
Kath Soucie
Arthur Q. Bryan
Corey Burton
Daws Butler
Martin Cannon
Nancy Cartwright
Dan Castellaneta
Al Chalk
Joe Cipriano
Elaine Clark
Pinto Colvig
Stephan Cox
Peter Coyote
Kathryn "Kat" Cressida
Peter Cullen
Mairead Curran
Rajesh Vedprakash
Tim Curry
Steven Blum
George Delhoyo
Keith David
Peter Dickson
Melissa Disney
D.C. Douglas
Hal Douglas
Mike Elmore
Pat Fraley
June Foray
Stan Freberg
Rod Lucas
Paul Frees
Dan Green (voice actor)
Edward Herrmann
Harlan Hogan
Sterling Holloway
Ian Holm
Derek Jacobi
James Earl Jones
Tom Kane
Julie Kavner
Harry Kalas
Casey Kasem
Stacey Keach
Jason Klofstad
Don LaFontaine
Maurice LaMarche
Bartell LaRue
Robert Lee
Wendee Lee
Yuri Lowenthal
Joanna Lumley
Will Lyman
Ian McKellen
Jack Mercer
Burgess Meredith
Don Messick
Howard Morris
Ryan Drummond
Clarence Nash
Leonard Nimoy
Ken Nordine
Johnny Olson
Gary Owens
Don Pardo
Rob Paulsen
Will Patton
Vic Perrin
Tara Platt
Vincent Price
Mae Questel
Thurl Ravenscroft
Howard Reig
Chris Rock
David Rosenthal
Christopher Sabat
Mirko Savone
Sean Schemmel
Alexander Scourby
Harry Shearer
Hal Smith
Yeardley Smith
James Spader
Terence Stamp
David Ogden Stiers
Kiefer Sutherland
John Stephenson
Patrick Stewart
Tara Strong
Josh Keaton
Joshua Swanson
Lynne Thigpen
Peter Thomas
Randy Thomas   [ disambiguation needed ]
Richard Thomas
David Tyler
Ricky Salmon
Sylvia Villagran
Beau Weaver
Frank Welker
Orson Welles
Billy West
Robin Williams
Paul Winchell
Mary Windishar
Dave Wittenberg
Steven Zirnkilton
Daniel Tostenson
Guy Harris
Vic Mignogna
Travis Willingham
Brina Healy
Brenda Strong
Suha Çalkıvik

See also

Hand-Over
Language customization
National Audio Theatre Festival , national non-profit which trains voice-over artists and actors.
Voice acting

Laptop Teleprompter

Laptop Teleprompter

A laptop is a personal computer designed for mobile use and small and light enough to sit on a person's lap while in use. [ 1 ] A laptop integrates most of the typical components of a desktop computer , including a display , a keyboard , a pointing device (a touchpad , also known as a trackpad, and/or a pointing stick ), speakers, and usually including a battery, into a single small and light unit. The rechargeable battery (if present) is charged from an AC adapter and typically stores enough energy to run the laptop for three to five hours in its initial state, depending on the configuration and power management of the computer.
Laptops are usually notebook -shaped with thicknesses between 0.7–1.5 inches (18–38 mm) and dimensions ranging from 10x8 inches (27x22cm, 13" display) to 15x11 inches (39x28cm, 17" display) and up. Modern laptops weigh 3 to 12 pounds (1.4 to 5.4 kg); older laptops were usually heavier. Most laptops are designed in the flip form factor to protect the screen and the keyboard when closed. Modern tablet laptops have a complex joint between the keyboard housing and the display, permitting the display panel to swivel and then lie flat on the keyboard housing.
Laptops were originally considered to be a small niche market and were thought suitable mostly for specialized field applications such as the military, the Internal Revenue Service, accountants and sales representatives. But today, laptops are becoming more popular for student and general uses.




Contents


1 History
2 Classification

2.1 Desktop replacement
2.2 Subnotebook
2.3 Netbook


3 Components

3.1 Docking stations
3.2 Standards


4 Advantages
5 Disadvantages

5.1 Performance
5.2 Upgradeability
5.3 Ergonomics and health
5.4 Durability
5.5 Security


6 Major brands and manufacturers
7 Sales
8 See also
9 References





//

History
Main article: History of laptops




The Epson HX-20


As the personal computer became feasible in the early 1970s, the idea of a portable personal computer followed. A "personal, portable information manipulator" was imagined by Alan Kay at Xerox PARC in 1968 [ 2 ] and described in his 1972 paper as the " Dynabook ". [ 3 ]
The IBM SCAMP project (Special Computer APL Machine Portable), was demonstrated in 1973. This prototype was based on the PALM processor (Put All Logic In Microcode).
The IBM 5100 , the first commercially available portable computer, appeared in September 1975, and was based on the SCAMP prototype. [ 4 ]
As 8-bit CPU machines became widely accepted, the number of portables increased rapidly. The Osborne 1 , released in 1981, used the Zilog Z80 and weighed 23.5 pounds (10.7 kg). It had no battery, a 5 in (13 cm) CRT screen and dual 5.25 in (13.3 cm) single-density floppy drives. In the same year the first laptop-sized portable computer, the Epson HX-20 , was announced. [ 5 ] The Epson had a LCD screen, a rechargeable battery and a calculator-size printer in a 1.6 kg (3.5 lb) chassis. Both Tandy/RadioShack and HP also produced portable computers of varying designs during this period. [ 6 ] [ 7 ]
The first laptops using the flip form factor appeared in the early 1980s. The Dulmont Magnum was released in Australia in 1981-82, but was not marketed internationally until 1984-85. The $8150 GRiD Compass 1100 , released in 1982, was used at NASA and by the military among others. The Gavilan SC , released in 1983, was the first notebook marketed using the term "laptop." [ 8 ] From 1983 onward, several new input techniques were developed and included in laptops, including the touchpad ( Gavilan SC , 1983), the pointing stick (IBM ThinkPad 700, 1992) and handwriting recognition (Linus Write-Top, [ 9 ] 1987). Some CPUs were designed specifically for low-power use such as laptops (Intel i386SL , 1990) and were supported by dynamic power management features (Intel SpeedStep and AMD PowerNow! ) in some designs. Displays reached VGA resolution by 1988 (Compaq SLT/286) and 256-color screens by 1993 ( PowerBook 165c ), progressing quickly to millions of colors and high resolutions. High-capacity hard drives and optical storage ( CD-ROM followed by CD-R and CD-RW and eventually by DVD-ROM and the writable varieties) became available in laptops soon after their introduction to the desktops.
Classification
The general term "laptop" can be used to refer to a number of classes of small portable computers: [ 10 ] [ 11 ]

Notebook – A laptop PC which measures at least 11 inches across, which is the minimum width to allow for a full-size keyboard (a keyboard with the minimum QWERTY key layout , which is at least 13-1/2 keys across that are on three-quarter (0.750) inch centers, plus some room on both ends for the case). The first Notebook PC's were the size of a standard U.S. "A size" notebook piece of paper (8-1/2 x 11 inches), but later "A4-size" Notebook PC's were introduced, which were the width of a standard European "A4" notebook piece of paper (297 mm, or about 11.7 inches wide), and added a vertical column of keys to the right and wider screens.
Sub-Notebook or Netbook – A laptop PC which is less than 11 inches wide, which means it has less than a full-size keyboard (measured in percentage of full-size, such as 92%), and therefore also less display screen width, compared to a Notebook PC. It also is usually lower cost, more lightweight, and has less features than a Notebook PC. The tradeoff is that a smaller than full-size keyboard can be more difficult to operate, especially if one has larger hands.
Ultra-thin Laptop - A newer class of laptops which is very thin and lightweight.
Tablet PC – Has a small, "calculator-type" or "chiclet" keyboard, and/or touch-screen interface.
Rugged – Engineered to operate in tough conditions (strong vibrations, extreme temperatures, wet and dusty environments).

Desktop replacement




Dell XPS M140 Laptop.


Main article: Desktop replacement computer
A desktop replacement computer is a laptop that provides most of the capabilities of a desktop computer , with a similar level of performance. Desktop replacements are usually larger and heavier than standard laptops. They contain more powerful components and have a 15" or larger display. [ 11 ] Because of their bulk, they are not as portable as other laptops and their operation time on batteries is typically shorter; instead, they are meant to be used as a more compact, easier to carry alternative to a desktop computer. [ 11 ]
Some laptops in this class use a limited range of desktop components to provide better performance for the same price at the expense of battery life; in a few of those models, there is no battery at all and the laptop can only be used when plugged in. These are sometimes called desknotes , a portmanteau of the words "desktop" and "notebook," though the term can also be applied to desktop replacement computers in general. [ 12 ]
In the early 2000s, desktops were more powerful, easier to upgrade, and much cheaper in comparison with laptops. But in the last few years, the advantages have drastically changed or shrunk since the performance of laptops has markedly increased. [ 13 ] In the second half of 2008, laptops have finally outsold desktops for the first time ever, due to their durability and being portable to travel around with. In the U.S., the PC shipment declined 10 percent in the fourth quarter of 2008. In Asia, the worst PC shipment growth went up 1.8 percent over the same quarter the previous year since PC statistics research started. [ 14 ]
The names " Media Center Laptops " and " Gaming Laptops " are also used to describe specialized members of this class of notebooks. [ 10 ]
Subnotebook




Sony VAIO P series subnotebook.


Main article: Subnotebook
A subnotebook, also called an ultraportable by some vendors, is a laptop designed and marketed with an emphasis on portability (small size, low weight and longer battery life) that retains the performance of a standard notebook. [ 15 ] Subnotebooks are usually smaller and lighter than standard laptops, weighing between 0.8 and 2 kg (2 to 5 pounds); [ 10 ] the battery life can exceed 10 hours [ 16 ] when a large battery or an additional battery pack is installed.
To achieve the size and weight reductions, ultraportables use high resolution 13" and smaller screens (down to 6.4"), have relatively few ports (but in any case include two or more USB ports), employ expensive components designed for minimal catapillar size and best power efficiency, and utilize advanced materials and construction methods. Some subnotebooks achieve a further portability improvement by omitting an optical/removable media drive; in this case they may be paired with a docking station that contains the drive and optionally more ports or an additional battery.
The term "subnotebook" is usually reserved to laptops that run general-purpose desktop operating systems such as Windows , Linux or Mac OS X , rather than specialized software such as Windows CE , Palm OS or Internet Tablet OS .
Netbook
Main article: Netbook
Netbooks are laptops that are light-weight, economical, energy-efficient and especially suited for wireless communication and Internet access. [ 17 ] [ 18 ] Hence the name netbook (as "the device excels in web-based computing performance") [ 19 ] rather than notebook which pertains to size. [ 20 ]
With primary focus given to web browsing and e-mailing , netbooks "rely heavily on the Internet for remote access to web-based applications " [ 19 ] and are targeted increasingly at cloud computing users who rely on servers and require a less powerful client computer . [ 21 ] While the devices range in size from below 5 inches [ 22 ] to over 12, [ 23 ] most are between 7 and 11 inches and weigh between 0.9 - 1.4 kg (2-3 pounds). [ 19 ]
Netbooks normally use light-weight operating systems such Linux , Windows XP and Windows 7 Starter edition.
Components
Main article: Computer hardware




Miniaturization: a comparison of a desktop computer motherboard ( ATX form factor) to a motherboard from a 13" laptop (2008 unibody Macbook )






Inner view of a Sony VAIO laptop


The basic components of laptops are similar in function to their desktop counterparts, but are miniaturized , adapted to mobile use, and designed for low power consumption. Because of the additional requirements, laptop components are usually of inferior performance compared to similarly priced desktop parts. Furthermore, the design bounds on power, size, and cooling of laptops limit the maximum performance of laptop parts compared to that of desktop components. [ 24 ]
The following list summarizes the differences and distinguishing features of laptop components in comparison to desktop personal computer parts:

Motherboard – Laptop motherboards are highly make and model specific, and do not conform to a desktop form factor . Unlike a desktop board that usually has several slots for expansion cards (3 to 7 are common), a board for a small, highly integrated laptop may have no expansion slots at all, with all the functionality implemented on the motherboard itself; the only expansion possible in this case is via an external port such as USB . Other boards may have one or more standard, such as ExpressCard , or proprietary expansion slots. Several other functions (storage controllers, networking, sound card and external ports) are implemented on the motherboard. [ 25 ]


Central processing unit (CPU) – Laptop CPUs have advanced power-saving features and produce less heat than desktop processors, but are not as powerful. [ 26 ] There is a wide range of CPUs designed for laptops available from Intel ( Pentium M , Celeron M , Intel Core and Core 2 Duo ), AMD ( Athlon , Turion 64 , and Sempron ), VIA Technologies , Transmeta and others. On the non- x86 architectures, Motorola and IBM produced the chips for the former PowerPC -based Apple laptops ( iBook and PowerBook ). Some laptops have removable CPUs, although support by the motherboard may be restricted to the specific models. [ 27 ] In other laptops the CPU is soldered on the motherboard and is non-replaceable.





A SODIMM memory module.



Memory (RAM) – SO-DIMM memory modules that are usually found in laptops are about half the size of desktop DIMMs . [ 25 ] They may be accessible from the bottom of the laptop for ease of upgrading, or placed in locations not intended for user replacement such as between the keyboard and the motherboard. Currently, most midrange laptops are factory equipped with 3-4 GB of DDR2 RAM, while some higher end notebooks feature up to 8 GB of DDR3 memory. Netbooks however, are commonly equipped with only 1 GB of RAM to keep manufacturing costs low.


Expansion cards – A PC Card (formerly PCMCIA ) or ExpressCard bay for expansion cards is often present on laptops to allow adding and removing functionality, even when the laptop is powered on. Some subsystems (such as Ethernet , Wi-Fi , or a cellular modem ) can be implemented as replaceable internal expansion cards, usually accessible under an access cover on the bottom of the laptop. Two popular standards for such cards are MiniPCI and its successor, the PCI Express Mini . [ 28 ]


Power supply – Laptops are typically powered by an internal rechargeable battery that is charged using an external power supply. The power supply can charge the battery and power the laptop simultaneously; when the battery is fully charged, the laptop continues to run on AC power. The charger adds about 400 grams (1 lb) to the overall "transport weight" of the notebook.


Battery – Current laptops utilize lithium ion batteries, with more recent models using the new lithium polymer technology. These two technologies have largely replaced the older nickel metal-hydride batteries. Typical battery life for standard laptops is two to five hours of light-duty use, but may drop to as little as one hour when doing power-intensive tasks. A battery's performance gradually decreases with time, leading to an eventual replacement in one to three years, depending on the charging and discharging pattern. This large-capacity main battery should not be confused with the much smaller battery nearly all computers use to run the real-time clock and to store the BIOS configuration in the CMOS memory when the computer is off. Lithium-ion batteries do not have a memory effect as older batteries may have. The memory effect happens when one does not use a battery to its fullest extent, then recharges the battery. New innovations in laptops and batteries have seen new possible matchings which can provide up to a full 24 hours of continued operation, assuming average power consumption levels. An example of this is the HP EliteBook 6930p when used with its ultra-capacity battery.


Video display controller – On standard laptops the video controller is usually integrated into the chipset to conserve power. This tends to limit the use of laptops for gaming and entertainment, two fields which have constantly escalating hardware demands. [ 29 ] Higher-end laptops and desktop replacements in particular often come with dedicated graphics processors on the motherboard or as an internal expansion card. These mobile graphics processors are comparable in performance to mainstream desktop graphic accelerator boards. [ 30 ] A few notebooks have switchable graphics with both an integrated and discrete card installed. The user can choose between using integrated graphics when battery life is important and dedicated graphics when demanding applications call for it. This allows for greater flexibility and also conserves power when not required. [ 31 ]


Display – Most modern laptops feature 12 inches (30 cm) or larger color active matrix displays based on a CCFL lamp with resolutions of 1280x800 ( 16:10 ) or 1366 x 768 ( 16:9 ) pixels and above. Many current models use screens with higher resolution than typical for desktop PCs (for example, the 1440×900 resolution of a 15"). Newer laptops come with LED based screens offering a lesser power consumption and wider viewing angles.





A size comparison of 3.5" and 2.5" hard disk drives



Removable media drives – A DVD / CD reader/writer drive is typically standard. CD drives are becoming rare, while Blu-Ray is becoming more common on notebooks. [ 32 ] Many ultraportables and netbooks either move the removable media drive into the docking station or exclude it altogether.


Internal storage – Laptop hard disks are physically smaller—2.5 inches (64 mm) or 1.8 inches (46 mm) —compared to desktop 3.5 inches (89 mm) drives. Some newer laptops (usually ultraportables) employ more expensive, but faster, lighter and power-efficient flash memory -based SSDs instead. Currently, 250 to 500 GB sizes are common for laptop hard disks (64 to 512 GB for SSDs).


Input – A pointing stick , touchpad or both are used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, and an integrated keyboard is used for typing. An external keyboard and/or mouse may be connected using USB or PS/2 (if present).


Ports – several USB ports, an external monitor port ( VGA or DVI ), audio in/out, and an Ethernet network port are found on most laptops. Less common are legacy ports such as a PS/2 keyboard/mouse port, serial port or a parallel port . S-video or composite video ports are more common on consumer-oriented notebooks. HDMI may be found on some higher-end notebooks.

Docking stations
A docking station is a relatively bulky laptop accessory that contains multiple ports, expansion slots, and bays for fixed or removable drives. A laptop connects and disconnects easily to a docking station, typically through a single large proprietary connector. A port replicator is a simplified docking station that only provides connections from the laptop to input/output ports. Both docking stations and port replicators are intended to be used at a permanent working place (a desk) to offer instant connection to multiple input/output devices and to extend a laptop's capabilities.
Docking stations became a common laptop accessory in the early 1990s. The most common use was in a corporate computing environment where the company had standardized on a common network card and this same card was placed into the docking station. These stations were very large and quite expensive. As the need for additional storage and expansion slots became less critical because of the high integration inside the laptop, port replicators have gained popularity, being a cheaper, often passive device that often simply mates to the connectors on the back of the notebook, or connects via a standardised port such as USB or FireWire .
Standards
Some laptop components (optical drives, hard drives, memory and internal expansion cards) are relatively standardized , and it is possible to upgrade or replace them in many laptops as long as the new part is of the same type, mainly the motherboard. [ 28 ] Depending on the manufacturer and model, a laptop may range from having several standard, easily customizable and upgradeable parts to a proprietary design that cannot be reconfigured at all. The replacability/upgradability of the hardware can be announced as positive by the laptop maker.
In general, components other than the four categories listed above are not intended to be replaceable, and thus rarely follow a standard. In particular, some motherboards, locations of ports, and design and placement of internal components are usually make and model specific. Those parts are neither interchangeable with parts from other manufacturers (replaceable) nor upgradeable. If broken or damaged, they must be substituted with an exact replacement part. Those users uneducated in the relevant fields are those the most affected by incompatibilities, especially if they attempt to connect their laptops with incompatible hardware or power adapters.
Intel , Asus , Compal , Quanta and other laptop manufacturers have created the Common Building Block standard for laptop parts to address some of the inefficiencies caused by the lack of standards.
Advantages




Laptop computers are portable and can be used in many locations. Shown here is former Mexican president Vicente Fox .


Portability is usually the first feature mentioned in any comparison of laptops versus desktop PCs. [ 33 ] Portability means that a laptop can be used in many places—not only at home and at the office, but also during commuting and flights, in coffee shops, in lecture halls and libraries, at clients' location or at a meeting room, etc. The portability feature offers several distinct advantages:

Productivity – Using a laptop in places where a desktop PC can't be used, and at times that would otherwise be wasted. For example, an office worker managing their e-mails during an hour-long commute by train, or a student doing his/her homework at the university coffee shop during a break between lectures. [ 34 ]


Immediacy – Carrying a laptop means having instant access to various information, personal and work files. Immediacy allows better collaboration between coworkers or students, as a laptop can be flipped open to present a problem or a solution anytime, anywhere.


Up-to-date information – If a person has more than one desktop PC, a problem of synchronization arises: changes made on one computer are not automatically propagated to the others. There are ways to resolve this problem, including physical transfer of updated files (using a USB flash memory stick or CDRs) or using synchronization software over the Internet. However, using a single laptop at both locations avoids the problem entirely, as the files exist in a single location and are always up-to-date.


Connectivity – A proliferation of Wi-Fi wireless networks and cellular broadband data services ( HSDPA , EVDO and others) combined with a near-ubiquitous support by laptops [ 35 ] means that a laptop can have easy Internet and local network connectivity while remaining mobile. Wi-Fi networks and laptop programs are especially widespread at university campuses. [ 36 ]

Other advantages of laptops include:

Size – Laptops are smaller than standard PCs. This is beneficial when space is at a premium, for example in small apartments and student dorms. When not in use, a laptop can be closed and put away.


Ease of Access - Most laptops have doors on the underside that allow the user to access the memory, hard drive and other components, by simply flipping the laptop to access the doors. For desktops the user must usually access the backside of the computer, which is harder if it's in an area with little space.


Low power consumption – Laptops are several times more power-efficient than desktops. A typical laptop uses 20-90 W, compared to 100-800 W for desktops. This could be particularly beneficial for businesses (which run hundreds of personal computers, multiplying the potential savings) and homes where there is a computer running 24/7 (such as a home media server, print server, etc.)


Quiet – Laptops are often quieter than desktops, due both to the components (quieter, slower 2.5-inch hard drives) and to less heat production leading to use of fewer and slower cooling fans.


Battery – a charged laptop can run several hours in case of a power outage and is not affected by short power interruptions and blackouts. A desktop PC needs a UPS to handle short interruptions, blackouts and spikes; achieving on-battery time of more than 20–30 minutes for a desktop PC requires a large and expensive UPS. [ 37 ]


All-in-One - designed to be portable, laptops have everything integrated in to the chassis. For desktops (excluding all-in-ones) this is divided into the desktop, keyboard, mouse, display, and optional peripherals such as speakers, and a webcam. This leads to lots of wiring. It can also lead to massive power consumption.


Extras - in comparison to low-end desktops, even low-end laptops include features such as integrated Wi-Fi, and Express Card slot, and a memory card reader.

Disadvantages
Compared to desktop PCs, laptops have disadvantages in the following fields:
Performance
Whilst the performance of mainstream desktops and laptops is comparable, laptops are significantly more expensive than desktop PCs at the same or even lower performance level. [ 38 ] The upper limits of performance of laptops are a little bit lower, and "bleeding-edge" features usually appear first in desktops and only then, as the underlying technology matures, are adapted to laptops.
However, for Internet browsing and typical office applications, where the computer spends the majority of its time waiting for the next user input, even netbook-class laptops are generally fast enough. [ 39 ] Most higher-end laptops are sufficiently powerful for high-resolution movie playback, 3D gaming and video editing and encoding. However, laptops are disadvantaged when dealing with database, maths, engineering, financial software, etc.
Some manufacturers work around this performance problem by using desktop CPUs for laptops. [ 40 ]
Upgradeability
Upgradeability of laptops is very limited compared to desktops, which are thoroughly standardized. In general, hard drives and memory can be upgraded easily. Optical drives and internal expansion cards may be upgraded if they follow an industry standard , but all other internal components, including the motherboard, CPU and graphics, are not always intended to be upgradeable.
The reasons for limited upgradeability are both technical and economic. There is no industry-wide standard form factor for laptops; each major laptop manufacturer pursues its own proprietary design and construction, with the result that laptops are difficult to upgrade and have high repair costs. With few exceptions, laptop components can rarely be swapped between laptops of competing manufacturers, or even between laptops from the different product-lines of the same manufacturer.
Some upgrades can be performed by adding external devices, either USB or in expansion card format such a PC Card : sound cards, network adapters, hard and optical drives, and numerous other peripherals are available, but these upgrades usually impair the laptop's portability, because they add cables and boxes to the setup and often have to be disconnected and reconnected when the laptop is on the move.
Ergonomics and health




Laptop coaster preventing heating of lap and improving laptop airflow.


Because of their small and flat keyboard and trackpad pointing devices, prolonged use of laptops can cause repetitive strain injury . [ 41 ] Usage of separate, external ergonomic keyboards and pointing devices is recommended to prevent injury when working for long periods of time; they can be connected to a laptop easily by USB or via a docking station. Some health standards require ergonomic keyboards at workplaces.
The integrated screen often causes users to hunch over for a better view, which can cause neck or spinal injuries. A larger and higher-quality external screen can be connected to almost any laptop to alleviate that and to provide additional "screen estate" for more productive work.
A study by State University of New York researchers found that heat generated from laptops can raise the temperature of the scrotum when balancing the computer on one's lap, potentially putting sperm count at risk. The study, which included roughly two dozen men aged 21 to 35, found that the sitting position required to balance a laptop can raise scrotum temperature by as much as 2.1 °C (3.78 °F). However, further research is needed to determine whether this directly affects sterility in men. [ 42 ]
A common practical solution to this problem is to place the laptop on a table or desk. Another solution is to obtain a cooling unit for the laptop - these units are usually USB powered and consist of a hard thin plastic case housing 1, 2 or 3 cooling fans (with the entire assembly designed to sit under the laptop in question) which results in the laptop remaining cool to the touch, and greatly reduces laptop heat buildup.
Heat from using a laptop on the lap can also cause skin discoloration on the thighs. [ 43 ]
Durability




A clogged heatsink on a 2.5 year old laptop.


Due to their portability, laptops are subject to more wear and physical damage than desktops. Components such as screen hinges, latches, power jacks and power cords deteriorate gradually due to ordinary use. A liquid spill onto the keyboard, a rather minor mishap with a desktop system, can damage the internals of a laptop and result in a costly repair. One study found that a laptop is 3 times more likely to break during the first year of use than a desktop. [ 44 ]
Original external components are expensive, and usually proprietary and non-interchangeble; other parts are inexpensive—a power jack can cost a few dollars—but their replacement may require extensive disassembly and reassembly of the laptop by a technician. Other inexpensive but fragile parts often cannot be purchased separate from larger more expensive components. [ 45 ] The repair costs of a failed motherboard or LCD panel may exceed the value of a used laptop.
Laptops rely on extremely compact cooling systems involving a fan and heat sink that can fail due to eventual clogging by accumulated airborne dust and debris. Most laptops do not have any sort of removable dust collection filter over the air intake for these cooling systems, resulting in a system that gradually runs hotter and louder as the years pass. Eventually the laptop starts to overheat even at idle load levels. This dust is usually stuck inside where casual cleaning and vacuuming cannot remove it. Instead, a complete disassembly is needed to clean the laptop.
Battery life of laptops is limited; the capacity drops with time, necessitating an eventual replacement after a few years. The battery is often easily replaceable, and one may replace it on purpose with a higher end model to achieve better battery life.
Security
Being valuable, common and portable, laptops are prized targets for theft . The cost of the stolen business or personal data and of the resulting problems ( identity theft , credit card fraud , breach of privacy laws ) can be many times the value of the stolen laptop itself. Therefore, both physical protection of laptops and the safeguarding of data contained on them are of the highest importance.
Most laptops have a Kensington security slot which is used to tether the computer to a desk or other immovable object with a security cable and lock. In addition to this, modern operating systems and third-party software offer disk encryption functionality that renders the data on the laptop's hard drive unreadable without a key or a passphrase.
Some laptops also now have additional security elements added by the consumer, including eye recognition software and fingerprint scanning [ 46 ] components.
Major brands and manufacturers
Main article: List of laptop brands and manufacturers



There is a multitude of laptop brands and manufacturers; several major brands, offering notebooks in various classes, are listed in the box to the right.
The major brands usually offer good service and support, including well-executed documentation and driver downloads that will remain available for many years after a particular laptop model is no longer produced. Capitalizing on service, support and brand image, laptops from major brands are more expensive than laptops by smaller brands and ODMs .
Some brands are specializing in a particular class of laptops, such as gaming laptops ( Alienware ), high-performance laptops ( Macbook Pro ), netbooks ( EeePC ) and laptops for children ( OLPC ).
Many brands, including the major ones, do not design and do not manufacture their laptops. Instead, a small number of Original Design Manufacturers (ODMs) design new models of laptops, and the brands choose the models to be included in their lineup. In 2006, 7 major ODMs manufactured 7 of every 10 laptops in the world, with the largest one ( Quanta Computer ) having 30% world market share. [ 47 ] Therefore, there often are identical models available both from a major label and from a low-profile ODM in-house brand.



Major laptop brands

Acer – TravelMate , eMachines , Extensa , Ferrari and Aspire
Apple – MacBook , MacBook Air and MacBook Pro
Asus – Asus Eee , Lamborghini , ASUS G Series(ROG)
Dell – Alienware , Inspiron , Latitude , Precision , Studio , Vostro and XPS
Fujitsu – Lifebook
Gateway
HCL – ME Laptop , ME Netbook , Leaptop and MiLeap
Hewlett-Packard - HP – HP Pavilion , HP Probook , Compaq Presario
Lenovo – ThinkPad , IdeaPad , and 3000 series
LG - Xnote
MSI - Micro-Star International – E(ntertainment), C(lassic), P(rofessional), G(aming), V(alue), A(esthetic), X(Slim), U series and Wind Netbook
Panasonic – Toughbook , Satellite , Let's Note (Japan only) [ 48 ]
Sager Midern - Various Clevo based models, many boutique vendor branded models
Samsung – SENS : M, P, Q, R and X series
Sony - Vaio
TG Sambo - Averatec , Averatec Buddy
Toshiba - Dynabook , Portege , Tecra , Satellite , Qosmio , Libretto





Sales
Battery-powered portable computers had just 2% worldwide market share in 1986. [ 49 ] But today, laptops are becoming increasingly popular, both for business and personal use. [ 50 ] In 2008 it is estimated that 145.9 million notebooks were sold, and in 2009 the number will grow to 177.7 million. [ 51 ] The third quarter of 2008 was the first time when notebook PC shipments exceeded desktops , with 38.6 million units versus 38.5 million units. [ 50 ] [ 52 ] [ 53 ] [ 54 ]
For Microsoft Windows systems, the average selling price (ASP) showed a decline in 2008/2009, possibly due to low-cost netbooks , drawing 689 US$ at U.S. retail in August 2008. In 2009, ASP had further fallen to 602 US$ by January and to 560 US$ in February. While Windows machines fell 129 US$ in these seven months, Mac laptop ASP declined just 12 US$ from 1524 US$ to 1512 US$. [ 55 ]
See also




Desktop computer
List of computer size categories
List of laptop brands and manufacturers
List of NO-OS and Open Source Laptop Manufacturers
Mobile broadband
Mobile internet device (MID)
Mobile modem
Mobile phone
Mobility factor
NEC UltraLite
Netbook
Palmtop
Pay As You Go (phone)




PDA
Personal computer
Scissor-switch
SIM card
Smartbook
Smartphone
Stereoscopic glasses
Tablet PC
Tablet Computer
Tethering
Touchscreen
Ultra-Mobile PC
Ultrathin laptops

Jib

Jib

A jib (also spelled jibb ) is a triangular staysail set ahead of the foremast of a sailing boat. Its tack is fixed to the bowsprit , to the bow , or to the deck between the bowsprit and the foremost mast. Jibs and spinnakers are the two main types of headsails on a modern boat.
Modern yachts and small craft




A jib , left, compared to a genoa , right. The foretriangle is outlined in red.


On a boat with two staysails the inner sail is called the staysail , and the outer (foremost) is called the jib. This combination of two staysails is called a cutter rig (or a yankee pair ) and a boat with one mast rigged with two staysails and a mainsail is called a cutter .
On boats with only one jib, it is common for the clew of the jib to be further aft than the mast, meaning the jib and mainsail overlap. An overlapping jib is called a genoa jib or simply a genoa (see illustration).
On cruising yachts with more than one jib, it is common for the innermost jib to be self-tacking , either by using a boom along the foot of the sail, or by cleating the jib sheet to a track, or both. On other cruising yachts, and nearly all racing sailboats, the jib needs to be worked when tacking. On these yachts, there are two sheets attached to the clew of the jib. As the yacht comes head to wind during a tack, the active sheet is released, and the other sheet (the lazy sheet ) on the other side of the boat is pulled in. This sheet becomes the new active sheet until the next tack.
Traditional vessels




The barque Alexander von Humboldt , with four jibs set and a fifth furled on the bowsprit


Schooners typically have up to three jibs. The foremost one sets on the topmast forestay and is generally called the jib topsail , a second on the main forestay is called the jib , and the innermost is called the staysail . Actually, all three sails are both jibs and staysails in the generic sense.
A square-rigged ship typically has four jibs (though vessels with more or fewer exist). From forward to aft, these sails are called:

Flying jib
Outer jib
Inner jib
Fore ( topmast ) staysail

See also

Lateen sail
Sail-plan

soft box lighting

soft box lighting

A Soft box is a type of photographic lighting device, one of a number of photographic soft light devices. All the various soft light types create soft diffused light by directing light through some diffusing material, or by "bouncing" light off a second surface to diffuse the light. The best known form of bouncing source is the umbrella light where the light from the bulb is bounced off the inside of a metalized umbrella to create a soft indirect light.
A "soft box" is an enclosure around a bulb comprising reflective side and back walls and a diffusing material at the front of the light.
The sides and back of the box are lined with a bright surface - an aluminized fabric surface or an aluminum foil, to act as an efficient reflector. In some commercially available models the diffuser is removable to allow the light to be used alone as a floodlight or with an umbrella reflector .
A soft box can be used with either flash or continuous light sources such as fluorescent lamps or "hot lights" such as quartz halogen bulbs or tungsten bulbs . If soft box lights are used with 'hot' light sources, the user must be sure the softbox is heat rated for the wattage of the light it is attached to in order to avoid fire hazard.
See also

Striplight
Reflector (photography)
Beauty Dish

Digital Video Switcher

Digital Video Switcher

A digital video recorder ( DVR ) or personal video recorder ( PVR ) is a device that records video in a digital format to a disk drive , USB flash drive , SD memory card or other mass storage device. The term includes set-top boxes with recording facility, portable media players ( PMP ) with recording facility, recorders (PMR as camcorders that record onto memory cards ) and software for personal computers which enables video capture and playback to and from disk. Television sets with digital video-recording facilities are available; LG was first to launch one in 2007. [ 1 ]




Contents


1 History

1.1 Hard-disk based digital video recorders
1.2 Introduction of dual tuners


2 Integrated TV-SET digital video recorders
3 VESA Compatible digital video recorders
4 PC-based digital video recorders

4.1 Linux
4.2 Mac OS
4.3 Windows


5 Source video

5.1 Analog sources overview

5.1.1 Analog broadcast copy protection


5.2 Digital sources overview

5.2.1 ATSC broadcast

5.2.1.1 Copy protection


5.2.2 DVB
5.2.3 Digital cable and satellite television
5.2.4 DVD
5.2.5 Digital camcorders




6 Security applications

6.1 Hardware features
6.2 Software features


7 Privacy concerns
8 The future of TV advertisements
9 Patent and copyright litigation
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
13 External links





//

History
Hard-disk based digital video recorders




Back view of a TiVo Series2 5xx-generation unit.


Consumer digital video recorders ReplayTV and TiVo were launched at the 1998 Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas , USA. Microsoft also demonstrated a unit with DVR capability, but this did not become available until the end of 1999 for full DVR features in Dish Network's DISHplayer receivers. TiVo shipped their first units on March 31, 1999. ReplayTV won the "Best of Show" award in the video category [ 2 ] with Netscape co-founder Marc Andreessen as an early investor and board member [ 3 ] , but TiVo was more successful commercially. While early legal action by media companies forced ReplayTV to remove many features such as automatic commercial skip and the sharing of recordings over the Internet [ 4 ] , newer devices have steadily regained these functions while adding complementary abilities, such as recording onto DVDs and programming and remote control facilities using PDAs, networked PCs, and Web browsers.
Hard-disk based digital video recorders make the " time shifting " feature (traditionally done by a VCR ) much more convenient, and also allow for "trick modes" such as pausing live TV, instant replay of interesting scenes, chasing playback where a recording can be viewed before it has been completed, and skipping of advertising . Most DVRs use the MPEG format for compressing the digitized video signals.

Digital video recorders tied to a video service

At the 1999 CES, Dish Network demonstrated the hardware that would later have DVR capability with the assistance of Microsoft software [ 5 ] . Users would have to wait until June 1999 for simple time shifting capabilities in the 7100, rebranded as the DISHPlayer satellite receiver, [ 6 ] which also included WebTV Networks internet TV. [ 5 ] By the end of 1999 the Dishplayer had full DVR capabilities and within a year, over 200,000 units were sold. [ 7 ] [ 8 ]
In the UK , digital video recorders are often referred to as "plus boxes" (such as BSKYB's Sky+ and Virgin Media's V+ which integrates an HD capability, and the subscription free Freesat+ and Freeview+ ). British Sky Broadcasting markets a popular combined EPG and DVR as Sky+ . TiVo launched a UK model in 2000, and while no longer on sale, the subscription service is still maintained. South African based Africa Satellite TV beamer Multichoice recently launched their DVR which is available on their Dstv platform. In addition to ReplayTV and TiVo, there are a number of other suppliers of digital terrestrial ( DTT ) DVRs, including Thomson, Topfield , Fusion, Pace Micro Technology , Humax and AC Ryan Playon .
Many satellite, cable and IPTV companies are incorporating digital video recording functions into their set-top box , such as with DirecTiVo , DISHPlayer/DishDVR, Scientific Atlanta Explorer 8xxx from Time Warner, Total Home DVR from AT&T U-verse , Motorola 6xxx from Comcast, Moxi Media Center by Digeo (available through Charter, Adelphia, Sunflower, Bend Broadband, and soon Comcast and other cable companies), or Sky+. Astro introduced their DVR system, called Astro MAX , which was the first PVR in Malaysia. Sadly, it was phased out two years after its introduction.
In the case of digital television, there is no encoding necessary in the DVR since the signal is already a digitally encoded MPEG stream. The digital video recorder simply stores the digital stream directly to disk. Having the broadcaster involved with, and sometimes subsidizing, the design of the DVR can lead to features such as the ability to use interactive TV on recorded shows, pre-loading of programs, or directly recording encrypted digital streams. It can, however, also force the manufacturer to implement non-skippable advertisements and automatically-expiring recordings.
In the United States, the FCC has ruled that starting on July 1, 2007, consumers will be able to purchase a set-top box from a third-party company, rather than being forced to purchase or rent the set-top box from their cable company. [ 9 ] This ruling only applies to "navigation devices," otherwise known as a cable television set-top box, and not to the security functions that control the user’s access to the content of the cable operator. [ 10 ] The overall net effect on digital video recorders and related technology is unlikely to be substantial as standalone DVRs are currently readily available on the open market.
Introduction of dual tuners
In 2003 many Satellite and Cable providers introduced dual-tuner digital video recorders. In the UK, BSkyB introduced their first PVR Sky+ with dual tuner support in 2001. These machines have two independent tuners within the same receiver. The main use for this feature is the capability to record a live program while watching another live program simultaneously or to record two programs at the same time, possibly while watching a previously recorded one. Some dual-tuner DVRs also have the ability to output to two separate television sets at the same time. The PVR manufactured by UEC ( Durban , South Africa ) and used by Multichoice has the ability to view two programs while recording a third using a triple tuner. With some machines, such as the Scientific Atlanta 8300DVB PVR, it is possible to view one program whilst recording two other programs according to the user's preference. For more information :www.cctv.com
Where several channels are transmitted on a single multiplex it is possible with some PVRs to record two channels and view a third, so long as all three channels are on two multiplexes (or one) [ 11 ] .
Integrated TV-SET digital video recorders





This section is written like an advertisement . Please help rewrite this section from a neutral point of view . (April 2009)







This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards . Please improve this section if you can. (April 2009)



Integrated LCD DVR


Front view: Looks like a typical LCD monitor


Media type
LCD DVR



Integrated LCD DVR


Rear view: DVR connectors are at the bottom, the HDD is at the top left.


Media type
LCD DVR



Integrated LCD DVR


Side view: Even with all the DVR components inside the LCD monitor is still slim.


Media type
LCD DVR


Digital video recorders integrated into LCDs exist and are often in the LCD and LED TV-sets. These systems let the user simplify the wiring and installation, because they do not use ports ( SCART or HDMI ), and they only need to use only one device and remote control instead of two.
There are examples of security systems integrated into such DVRs, and thus they are capable of recording more input streams in parallel. Some of them include wireless ports such as ( Bluetooth and WiFi ), so they can play and record files to or from cellular phones and other devices. Such devices can also be used as disguised observation systems, displaying pictures or videos as typical store display.
VESA Compatible digital video recorders

VESA Compatible DVR


The underside of a VESA compatible DVR


Media type
DVR


Developed by
Lorex Technology


VESA compatible DVR are designed small and light enough to mount to the back of an LCD monitor that has clear access to VESA mounting holes (100x100mm). This allows users to use their own personal monitor to save on cost and space.
PC-based digital video recorders
Software and hardware is available which can turn personal computers running Microsoft Windows , Linux , and Mac OS X into DVRs, and is a popular option for home-theater PC (HTPC) enthusiasts.
Linux
There are many free DVR applications available for Linux , each released as free and open source software under the GNU General Public License :

MythTV
VDR
LinuxMCE
FreeVo [6]

A commercial and proprietary application called SageTV is available for most popular Linux distributions.
Mac OS
Elgato makes a series of digital video recording devices called EyeTV. The software supplied with each device is also called EyeTV, and is available separately for use on compatible third-party tuners from manufacturers such as Pinnacle, TerraTec, and Hauppauge.
SageTV provides DVR software for the Mac with built in placeshifting for watching TV remotely and sells and supports the Hauppauge HVR-950, myTV.PVR and HDHomeRun hardware with its DVR software. SageTV software also includes the ability to watch YouTube and other online video with a remote control.
MythTV (see above) also runs under Mac OS X , but most recording devices are currently only supported under Linux. Precompiled binaries are available for the MythTV front-end, allowing a Mac to watch video from (and control) a MythTV server running under Linux.
Apple provides applications in the FireWire software developer kit which allow any Mac with a FireWire port to record the MPEG2 transport stream from a FireWire equipped cable box (for example: Motorola 62xx, including HD streams). Applications can also change channels on the cable box via the firewire interface. Only broadcast channels can be recorded as the rest of the channels are encrypted. FireRecord (formerly iRecord) is a free scheduled-recording program derived from this SDK.
Windows
There are several free digital video recording applications available for Microsoft Windows including GB-PVR , MediaPortal , and Orb (web-based remote interface).
There are also several commercial applications available including CyberLink , SageTV , Beyond TV , Showshifter , InterVideo WinDVR , the R5000-HD and Meedio (now a dead product - Yahoo! bought most of the company's technology and discontinued the Meedio line, and rebranded the software Yahoo! Go - TV, which is now a free product but only works in the U.S. [ 12 ] ). Most TV tuner cards come bundled with software which allows the PC to record television to hard disk [ 13 ] . For example, Leadtek 's WinFast DTV1000 digital TV card comes bundled with the WinFast PVR2 software, which can also record analog video from the card's composite video input socket. [ 14 ]
Windows Media Center is a DVR software by Microsoft bundled with the Media Center edition of Windows XP , the Home Premium / Ultimate editions of Windows Vista , as well as most editions of Windows 7 .
Source video
Television and video are terms that are sometimes used interchangeably, but differ in their technical meaning. Video is the visual portion of television, whereas television is the combination of video and audio modulated onto a carrier frequency (i.e., a television channel) for delivery. Most DVRs can record both.
Analog sources overview
The first digital video recorders were designed to record Analog television in NTSC , PAL or SECAM formats.
To record an analog signal a few steps are required. TV tuner card tunes into a particular frequency and then functions as a frame grabber , breaking the lines into individual pixels and quantizing them into a format that a computer can comprehend. Then the series of frames along with the audio (also sampled and quantized) are compressed into a manageable format, like MPEG-2 , usually in software.
Analog broadcast copy protection
Many mass-produced consumer DVRs implement a copy-protection system called CGMS-A or Copy Generation Management System—Analog . This encodes a pair of bits in the VBI of the analog video signal that specify one of the following settings:

Copying is freely allowed
Copying is prohibited
Only one copy of this material may be made
This is a copy of material for which only one copy was allowed to be made, so no further copies are allowed.

CGMS-A information may be present in analog broadcast TV signals, and is preserved when the signal is recorded and played back by analog VCRs , which of course don't understand the meanings of the bits. But the restrictions still come into effect when you try to copy the tape onto a PVR.
Digital sources overview
Recording digital signals is generally a straightforward capture of the binary MPEG data being received. No expensive hardware is required to quantize and compress the signal (as the television broadcaster has already done this in the studio).
DVD-based PVRs available on the market as of 2006 are not capable of capturing the full range of the visual signal available with high definition television (HDTV). This is largely because HDTV standards were finalized at a later time than the standards for DVDs. However, DVD-based PVRs can still be used (albeit at reduced visual quality) with HDTV since currently available HDTV sets also have standard A/V connections.
ATSC broadcast
ATSC television broadcasting is primarily used in North America . The ATSC data stream can be directly recorded by a digital video recorder, though many DVRs record only a subset of this information (that can later be transferred to DVD . An ATSC DVR will also act as a Set-top box , allowing older televisions or monitors to receive digital television.
Copy protection
The U.S. FCC attempted to limit the abilities of DVRs with its " broadcast flag " regulation. Digital video recorders that had not won prior approval from the FCC for implementing "effective" digital rights management would have been banned from interstate commerce from July 2005, but the regulation was struck down on May 6, 2005.
DVB
DVB Digital television contains audio/visual signals that are broadcast over the air in a digital rather than analog format. The DVB data stream can be directly recorded by the DVR. andy
Digital cable and satellite television
Recording satellite or digital cable signals on a digital video recorder can be more complex than recording analog signals or broadcast digital signals. There are several different transmission schemes, and the video streams may be encrypted to restrict access to subscribers only.
A satellite or cable set-top box both decrypts the signal if encrypted, and decodes the MPEG stream into an analog signal for viewing on the television. In order to record cable or satellite digital signals the signal must be captured after it has been decrypted but before it is decoded; this is how DVRs built into set-top boxes work.
Cable and satellite providers often offer their own digital video recorders along with a service plan. These DVRs have access to the encrypted video stream, and generally enforce the provider's restrictions on copying of material even after recording.
DVD
Many DVD-based DVRs have the capability to copy content from a source DVD.
In the U.S. this is prohibited under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act if the disc is encrypted. Most such DVRs will hence not allow recording of video streams from encrypted movie discs.
Digital camcorders
A digital camcorder combines a camera and a digital video recorder.
Some DVD-based DVRs incorporate connectors that can be used to capture digital video from a camcorder. Some editing of the resulting DVD is usually possible, such as adding chapter points .
Some digital video recorders can now record to solid state flash memory cards (called flash camcorders ). They generally use secure digital cards, include wireless connections ( bluetooth and WiFi ) and can play swf files . There are some digital video recorders that combine video and graphics in real time to the flash card, such as the video logger from Racelogic [7] which takes multiple camera inputs and GPS generated graphics and merges them into one video (or stores the GPS coordinates in the image data).
Security applications
Digital video recorders configured for physical security applications record video signals from closed circuit television cameras for detection and documentation purposes. Many are designed to record audio as well. DVRs have evolved into devices that are feature rich and provide services that exceed the simple recording of video images that was previously done through VCRs. A DVR CCTV system provides a multitude of advanced functions over VCR technology including video searches by event, time, date and camera. There is also much more control over quality and frame rate allowing disk space usage to be optimized and the DVR can also be set to overwrite the oldest security footage should the disk become full. In some DVR security systems remote access to security footage using a PC can also be achieved by connecting the DVR to a LAN network or the internet. videoNEXT also makes a NVR surveillance application for the Mac OS X. Some of the latest professional digital video recorders include video analytics firmware, to enable functionality such as 'virtual tripwire' or even the detection of abandoned objects on the scene.
Security DVRs may be categorized as being either PC based or embedded . A PC based DVR’s architecture is a classical personal computer with video capture cards designed to capture video images. An embedded type DVR is specifically designed as a digital video recorder with its operating system and application software contained in firmware or read only memory .
Hardware features
Hardware features of security DVRs vary between manufacturers and may include but are not necessarily limited to

Designed for rack mounting or desktop configurations.
Single or multiple video inputs with connector types consistent with the analogue or digital video provided such as coaxial cable , twisted pair or optical fiber cable. The most common number of inputs are 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 and 32. Systems may be configured with a very large number of inputs by networking or bussing individual DVRs together.
Looping video outputs for each input which duplicates the corresponding input video signal and connector type. These output signals are used by other video equipment such as matrix switchers, multiplexers , and video monitors .
Controlled outputs to external video display monitors.
Front panel switches and indicators that allow the various features of the machine to be controlled.
Network connections consistent with the network type and utilized to control features of the recorder and to send and/or receive video signals.
Connections to external control devices such as keyboards .
A connection to external pan-tilt-zoom drives that position cameras.
Internal CD, DVD, VCR devices typically for archiving video.
Connections to external storage media .
Alarm event inputs from external security detection devices, usually one per video input.
Alarm event outputs from internal detection features such as motion detection or loss of video.

Software features
Software features vary between manufacturers and may include but are not necessarily limited to

User selectable image capture rates either on an all input basis or input by input basis. The capture rate feature may be programmed to automatically adjust the capture rate on the occurrence of an external alarm or an internal event
Selectable image resolution either on an all input basis or input by input basis. The image resolution feature may be programmed to automatically adjust the image resolution on the occurrence of an external alarm or an internal event.
Compression methods determine quality of playback. H.264 hardware compression offers fast transfer rates over the internet with high quality video.
Motion detection : Provided on an input by input basis, this feature detects motion in the total image or a user definable portion of the image and usually provides sensitivity settings. Detection causes an internal event that may be output to external equipment and/or be used to trigger changes in other internal features.
Lack of motion detection. Provided on an input by input basis, this feature detects the movement of an object into the field of view and remaining still for a user definable time. Detection causes an internal event that may be output to external equipment and/or used to trigger changes in other internal features.
Direction of motion detection. Provided on an input by input basis, this feature detects the direction of motion in the image that has been determined by the user as an unacceptable occurrence. Detection causes an internal event that may be output to external equipment and/or be used to trigger changes in other internal features.
Routing of input video to video monitors based on user inputs or automatically on alarms or events.
Input, time and date stamping .
Alarm and event logging on appropriate video inputs.
Alarm and event search.
One or more sound recording channels.
Archival .
Commercial hopping. Rather than fast-forwarding through commercials, an undocumented feature of the TiVo box is that the user can reprogram the tab-to-end button by entering a sequence of buttons on the remote: SELECT-PLAY-SELECT-3-0-SELECT and listening for the confirming chimes that signal the feature has been activated (or deactivated). The tab-to-end button no longer jumps to the end of a recording when so activated: It skips 30 seconds, which is the length of U.S. commercials. In combination with the 8-second rewind button, most viewers can completely miss commercial breaks in programming.

Privacy concerns
Some digital video recorders which are designed to send information to a service provider over a telephone line (or any other way) can gather and send real-time data on users' viewing habits. [ 15 ]
The future of TV advertisements
Digital video recorders are also changing the way television programs advertise products. Watching pre-recorded programs allows users to fast-forward through commercials, and some technology allows users to remove commercials entirely. This feature has been controversial for the last decade, with major television networks and movie studios claiming it violates copyright and should be banned.
In 1985, an employee of Honeywell’s Physical Sciences Center, David Rafner, first described a drive-based DVR designed for home TV recording, time-slipping, and commercial skipping. U.S. Patent 4,972,396 focused on a multi-channel design to allow simultaneous independent recording and playback. Broadly anticipating future DVR developments, it describes possible applications such as streaming compression, editing, captioning, multi-channel security monitoring, military sensor platforms, and remotely piloted vehicles.
The first DVR which had a built-in Commercial skipping feature was ReplayTV with its "4000 Series" and "5000 Series" units. In 2002 five owners of the ReplayTV DVR sued the main television networks and movie studios, asking the federal judge to uphold consumers' rights to record TV shows and skip commercials claiming that features such as commercial skipping help parents protect their kids from excessive consumerism. ReplayTV ended up filing for bankruptcy in 2003 after fighting a copyright infringement suit over the ReplayTV's ability to skip commercials. A third-party add-on for Windows Media Center called "DVRMSToolbox" has the ability to skip commercials. There is a command-line program called Comskip that detects commercials in an MPEG-2 file and saves their positions to a text file. This file can then be fed to a program like MEncoder to actually remove the commercials.
Many speculate that television advertisements will be eliminated altogether [ citation needed ] , replaced by advertising in the TV shows themselves. For example, Extreme Makeover: Home Edition advertises Sears , Kenmore , Kohler , and Home Depot by specifically using products from these companies, and some sports events like the Sprint Cup of NASCAR are named after sponsors.
Another type of advertisement shown more and more, mostly for advertising TV shows on the same channel, is where the ad overlays the bottom of the TV screen, blocking out some of the picture. "Banners", or "Logo Bugs", as they are called, are referred to by media companies as Secondary Events (2E). This is done in much the same way as severe weather warnings are done. Sometimes these take up only 5-10% of the screen, but in the extreme, can take up as much as 25% of the viewing area. Some even make noise or move across the screen. One example of this is the 2E ads for Three Moons Over Milford in the months before its premiere. A video taking up approximately 25% of the bottom-left portion of the screen would show a comet impacting into the moon with an accompanying explosion, during another television program.
Because of this widely-used new technology, advertisers are now looking at a new way to market their products on television. An excerpt from the magazine Advertising Age reads: "As advertisers lose the ability to invade the home, and consumer's minds, they will be forced to wait for an invitation. This means that they have to learn what kinds of advertising content customers will actually be willing to seek out and receive." [ 16 ]
With ad skipping and the time-sensitive nature of certain ads, advertisers are wary of buying commercial time on shows that are heavily digitally video-recorded. [ 17 ] . However, the DVR enables dynamic ad insertion [ citation needed ] . Advertisers could inject time-relevant ads to recorded programs when the program is viewed. This way the ads could be not just topical but also personalized to viewers interests.
Patent and copyright litigation
‹ The template below ( Globalize ) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus.›





The examples and perspective in this US may not represent a worldwide view of the subject . Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page .


On July 14, 2005, Forgent Networks filed suit [ 18 ] against various companies alleging infringement on U.S. Patent 6,285,746 , entitled "Computer controlled video system allowing playback during recording". The listed companies included EchoStar, Directv, Charter Communications, Cox Communications, Comcast, Time Warner, and Cable One.
Scientific-Atlanta and Motorola , the manufacturers of the equipment sold by the above mentioned companies, filed a counter-suit against Forgent Networks claiming that their products do not violate the patent, and that the patent is invalid. The two cases were combined into case 6:06-cv-208, filed in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Texas, Tyler Division.
According to court documents, on June 20, 2006, Motorola requested that the United States Patent and Trademarks Office reexamine the patent, which was first filed in 1991, but has been amended several times. [ 19 ]
On March 23, 2007 Cablevision Systems Corp lost a legal battle against several Hollywood studios and television networks to introduce a network-based digital video recorder service to its subscribers. [ 20 ] However, on August 4, 2008, Cablevision won its appeal. John M. Walker Jr., a Second Circuit judge, declared that the technology "would not directly infringe" on the media companies' rights. [ 21 ] An appeal to the Supreme Court was rejected.
In court, the media companies argued that network digital video recorders were tantamount to video-on-demand, and that they should receive license fees for the recording. Cablevision and the appeals court disagreed. The company noted that each user would record programs on his or her own individual server space, making it a DVR that has a "very long cord." [ 21 ]
See also




Astro MAX
Boxee
Comparison of PVR software packages
Direct to disk recording
DTVPal DVR
Freeview+
Handheld television
Hard disk recorder
Media PC
Moxi
MythTV










ReplayTV
Sky+
TiVo
MPEG transport stream (ts file format).
Proprietary DVR
PVR-resistant advertising
Remote storage digital video recorder
TS file format
V+
XBMC

Concert Backline

Concert Backline

Non-linear Editing Systems

Non-linear Editing Systems

In video, a non-linear editing system ( NLE ) is a video editing (NLVE) or audio editing (NLAE) system which can perform random access on the source material.




Contents


1 Non-linear editing
2 History

2.1 DV
2.2 HD


3 Quality
4 See also
5 References
6 External links





//

Non-linear editing
Non-linear editing for films and television postproduction is a modern editing method which involves being able to access any frame in a digital video clip with the same ease as any other. This method is similar in concept to the "cut and paste" technique used in film editing from the beginning. However, the cutting of film negatives made it originally a destructive process. Non-linear, non-destructive methods began to appear with the introduction of digital video technology. It can also be viewed as the audio/video equivalent of word processing, which is why it is called desktop editing in the consumer space [ 1 ] .
Video and audio data are first captured to hard disks or other digital storage devices. The data is either recorded directly to the storage device or is imported from another source. Once imported they can be edited on a computer using any of a wide range of software . For a comprehensive list of available software, see List of video editing software , whereas Comparison of video editing software gives more detail of features and functionality.
In non-linear editing, the original source files are not lost or modified during editing. Professional editing software records the decisions of the editor in an edit decision list (EDL) which can be interchanged with other editing tools. Many generations and variations of the original source files can exist without needing to store many different copies, allowing for very flexible editing. It also makes it easy to change cuts and undo previous decisions simply by editing the edit decision list (without having to have the actual film data duplicated). Loss of quality is also avoided due to not having to repeatedly re-encode the data when different effects are applied.
Compared to the linear method of tape-to-tape editing, non-linear editing offers the flexibility of film editing, with random access and easy project organization. With the edit decision lists, the editor can work on low-resolution copies of the video. This makes it possible to edit both standard-definition broadcast quality and high definition broadcast quality very quickly on normal PCs which do not have the power to do the full processing of the huge full-quality high-resolution data in real-time.
The costs of editing systems have dropped such that non-linear editing tools are now within the reach of home users. Some editing software can now be accessed free as web applications ; some, like Cinelerra (focused on the professional market) and Blender3D , can be downloaded free of charge; and some, like AVS Video Editor , Microsoft 's Windows Movie Maker or Apple Computer 's iMovie , come included with the appropriate operating system.
A computer for non-linear editing of video will usually have a video capture card to capture analog video and/or a FireWire connection to capture digital video from a DV camera, with its video editing software . Modern web based editing systems can take video directly from a camera phone over a GPRS or 3G mobile connection, and editing can take place through a web browser interface, so strictly speaking a computer for video editing does not require any installed hardware or software beyond a web browser and an internet connection. [ citation needed ]
Various editing tasks can then be performed on the imported video before it is exported to another medium , or MPEG encoded for transfer to a DVD .
History
The first truly non-linear editor, the CMX 600 , was introduced in 1971 by CMX Systems , a joint venture between CBS and Memorex . It recorded & played back black-and-white analog video recorded in " skip-field " mode on modified disk pack drives the size of washing machines. These were commonly used to store data digitally on mainframe computers of the time. The 600 had a console with 2 monitors built in. The right monitor, which played the preview video, was used by the editor to make cuts and edit decisions using a light pen . The editor selected from options which were superimposed as text over the preview video. The left monitor was used to display the edited video. A Digital PDP-11 computer served as a controller for the whole system. Because the video edited on the 600 was in black and white and in low-resolution "skip-field" mode, the 600 was suitable only for offline editing .
Various approximations of non-linear editing systems were built in the '80s using computers coordinating multiple laser discs , or banks of VCRs. One example of these tape & disc-based systems was Lucasfilm 's EditDroid , which used several laserdiscs of the same raw footage to simulate random-access editing (a compatible system was developed for sound post production by Lucasfilm called SoundDroid --one of the earliest digital audio workstations ).
The term "nonlinear editing" or "non-linear editing" was formalized in 1991 with the publication of Michael Rubin's Nonlinear: A Guide to Digital Film and Video Editing (Triad, 1991) -- which popularized this terminology over other language common at the time, including "real time" editing, "random-access" or "RA" editing, "virtual" editing, "electronic film" editing, and so on. The handbook has remained in print since 1991, currently in its 4th edition (Triad, 2000).
Computer processing advanced sufficiently by the end of the '80s to enable true digital imagery, and has progressed today to provide this capability in personal desktop computers.
An example of computing power progressing to make non-linear editing possible was demonstrated in the first all-digital non-linear editing system to be released, the "Harry" effects compositing system manufactured by Quantel in 1985. Although it was more of a video effects system, it had some non-linear editing capabilities. Most importantly, it could record (and apply effects to) 80 seconds (due to hard disk space limitations) of broadcast-quality uncompressed digital video encoded in 8-bit CCIR 601 format on its built-in hard disk array.
Non-linear editing with computers as we know it today was first introduced by Editing Machines Corp. in 1989 with the EMC2 editor; a hard disk based non-linear off-line editing system, using half-screen resolution video at 15 frames per second. A couple of weeks later that same year, Avid introduced the Avid/1, the first in the line of their Media Composer systems. It was based on the Apple Macintosh computer platform ( Macintosh II systems were used) with special hardware and software developed and installed by Avid . The Avid/1 was not the first system to introduce modern concepts in non-linear editing such as timeline editing and clip bins — both of these were pioneered in Lucasfilm's EditDroid in the early 1980s.
The video quality of the Avid/1 (and later Media Composer systems from the late 80s) was somewhat low (about VHS quality), due to the use of a very early version of a Motion JPEG (M-JPEG) codec . But it was enough to be a very versatile system for offline editing , to revolutionize video and film editing, and quickly become the dominant NLE platform.
In December 1990 [ 2 ] NewTek introduced Video Toaster , a hardware and software solution for the Commodore Amiga 2000 computer system, taking advantage of the video-friendly aspects of that system's hardware to deliver the product at an unusually low cost ($1499). The hardware component was a full-sized card which went into the Amiga 's unique single video expansion slot rather than the standard bus slots, and therefore could not be used with the A500 and A1000 models. The card had several BNC connectors in the rear, which accepted four video input sources and provided two outputs (preview and program). This initial generation system was essentially a real-time four-channel video switcher .
For the second generation NewTek introduced the Video Toaster Flyer . The Flyer was a far more capable Non-linear editing system. In addition to processing live video signals, the Flyer made use of hard drives to store video clips and audio, and allowed complex scripted playback. The Flyer was capable of simultaneous dual-channel playback, which allowed the Toaster's Video switcher to perform transitions and other effects on Video clips without the need for rendering .
The hardware component was again a card designed for the Amiga's Zorro 2 expansion slot, and was primarily designed by Charles Steinkuehler. The Flyer portion of the Video Toaster/Flyer combination was a complete computer of its own, having its own Microprocessor and Embedded software , which was written by Marty Flickinger. Its hardware included three embedded SCSI controllers. Two of these SCSI buses were used to store video data, and the third to store audio. The hard drives were thus connected to the Flyer directly and used a proprietary filesystem layout, rather than being connected to the Amiga's buses and were available as regular devices using the included DOS driver. The Flyer used a proprietary Wavelet compression algorithm known as VTASC , which was well regarded at the time for offering better visual quality than comparable Motion JPEG based non-linear editing systems.
Until 1993, the Avid Media Composer could only be used for editing commercials or other small content projects, because the Apple Macintosh computers could access only 50 gigabytes of storage at one time. In 1992, this limitation was overcome by a group of industry experts led by Rick Eye a Digital Video R&D team at the Disney Channel . By February 1993, this team had integrated a long form system which gave the Avid Media Composer Apple Macintosh access to over 7 terabytes of digital video data. With instant access to the shot footage of an entire movie , long form non-linear editing (Motion Picture Editing) was now possible. The system made its debut at the NAB conference in 1993, in the booths of the three primary sub-system manufacturers, Avid , Silicon Graphics and Sony . Within a year, thousands of these systems replaced a century of 35mm film editing equipment in major motion picture studios and TV stations world wide, making Avid the undisputed leader in non-linear editing systems for over a decade. [ 3 ]
Although M-JPEG became the standard codec for NLE during the early 1990s, it had drawbacks. Its high computational requirements ruled out software implementations, leading to the extra cost and complexity of hardware compression/playback cards. More importantly, the traditional tape workflow had involved editing from tape, often in a rented facility. When the editor left the edit suite they could take their confidential video tapes with them. But the M-JPEG data rate was too high for systems like Avid on the Mac and Lightworks on PC to store the video on removable storage, so these used fixed hard disks instead. The tape paradigm of keeping your (confidential) content with you was not possible with these fixed disks. Editing machines were often rented from facilities houses on a per-hour basis, and some productions chose to delete their material after each edit session, and then recapture it the next day, in order to guarantee the security of their content. [ citation needed ] In addition, each NLE system had storage limited by its hard disk capacity.
These issues were addressed by a small UK company, Eidos plc . Eidos chose the new ARM -based computers from the UK and implemented an editing system, launched in Europe in 1990 at the International Broadcasting Convention . Because it implemented its own compression software designed specifically for non-linear editing, the Eidos system had no requirement for JPEG hardware and was cheap to produce. The software could decode multiple video and audio streams at once for real-time effects at no extra cost. But most significantly, for the first time, it allowed effectively unlimited quantities of cheap removable storage. The Eidos Edit 1, Edit 2, and later Optima systems allowed the editor to use any Eidos system, rather than being tied down to a particular one, and still keep his data secure. The Optima software editing system was closely tied to Acorn hardware, so when Acorn stopped manufacturing the Risc PC in the late 1990s, Eidos discontinued the Optima system.
In the early 1990s a small American company called Data Translation took what it knew about coding and decoding pictures for the US military and large corporate clients and threw $12m into developing a desktop editor which would use its proprietary compression algorithms and off-the-shelf parts. Their aim was to 'democratize' the desktop and take some of Avid's market. In August 1993 Media 100 entered the market and thousands of would-be editors had a low-cost, high-quality platform to use.
Around the same period of time there were two other competitors, providing non-linear systems that required special hardward often cards that had to be added to the computer system. Fast Video Machine was a PC based system that first came out as an offline system and later became more online capable. Immix Video Cube was also a contender for Media Prduction companies. The Immix Video Cube had a control surface with faders to allow mixing and shuttle controls without the purchase of third party controllers. Data Translation's Media 100 came with 3 different JPEG codecs for different types of graphics of video and many resolutions. The Media 100 system kept increasing its video resolution via software upgrades rather than hardware. This because the core cards had enough processing power to be expanded to resolutions as high as Avid systems at the upper end of the Avid product line. Cards at that time had CPU's on the cards, for example a 68000 processor, which were as powerful as the cards inside the Macintosh systems that hosted the application. These other companies caused tremendous downward market pressure on Avid. Avid was forced to continually offer lower priced system to compete with the Media 100 and other systems.
Inspired by the success of Media 100 , members of the Premiere development team left Adobe to start a project called "Keygrip" for Macromedia. Difficulty raising support and money for development led the team to take their non-linear editor to NAB. After various companies made offers, Keygrip was purchased by Apple as Steve Jobs wanted a product to compete with Adobe Premiere in the desktop video market. At around the same time, Avid — now with Windows versions of its editing software — was considering abandoning the Macintosh platform. Apple released Final Cut Pro in 1999, and despite not being taken seriously at first by professionals, it has evolved into a serious competitor to Avid .
DV
Another leap came in the late 1990s with the launch of DV-based video formats for consumer and professional use. With DV came IEEE 1394 (FireWire/iLink), a simple and inexpensive way of getting video into and out of computers. The video no longer had to be converted from an analog signal to digital data — it was recorded as digital to start with — and FireWire offered a straightforward way of transferring that data without the need for additional hardware or compression. With this innovation, editing become a more realistic proposition for standard computers with software-only packages. It enabled real desktop editing producing high-quality results at a fraction of the cost of other systems.
HD
More recently the introduction of highly compressed HD formats such as HDV has continued this trend, making it possible to edit HD material on a standard computer running a software-only editing application.
Avid is still considered the industry standard, with the majority of major feature films, television programs, and commercials created with its NLE systems. Final Cut Pro continues to develop a strong following, and the software received an Technology & Engineering Emmy Award in 2002. [ 4 ]
Avid has held on to its market-leading position, but faces growing competition from other, cheaper software packages, notably Adobe Premiere in 1992, and later Final Cut Pro in 1999. These three competing products by Avid , Adobe , and Apple are the foremost NLEs, often referred to as the A-Team [ 5 ] . With advances in raw computer processing power, a number of new NLE software solutions have appeared on the market. An example of this is NewTek's software application SpeedEdit . Billed as the world's fastest video editing program, this application is an example of the continual streamlining and refinement of video editing software interfaces.
Since 2000 many personal computers have come with basic nonlinear editing systems free of charge, as in the case of Apple iMovie for the Apple platform and Kdenlive , Openshot and Cinelerra on the Linux platform, and Windows Movie Maker for Windows platform. This has brought non-linear editing to consumers.
Quality
One of the primary concerns with non-linear editing has always been picture and sound quality. The need to compress and decompress video leads to some loss in quality. While improvements in compression techniques and disk storage capacity have reduced these concerns, they still exist. Most professional NLEs are able to edit uncompressed video with the appropriate hardware.
With the more recent adoption of DV formats, quality has become an issue again: DV's compression means that manipulation of the image can introduce significant degradation. However this can be partially avoided by rendering DV footage to a non-compressed intermediary format, thereby avoiding quality loss through recompression of the modified video images. Ultimately it depends on what changes are made to the image; simple edits should show no degradation; however, effects that alter the colour, size or position of parts of the image will have a more negative effect.
See also

Hard disk recorder
Linear video editing
Video server
List of video topics
Film editing
List of video editing software
Comparison of video editing software
Video editing software
HDV
EditDroid

Graphic Workstations

Graphic Workstations

In geometry , the pentachoron is a four-dimensional object bounded by 5 tetrahedral cells . It is also known as the 5-cell , pentatope , or hyperpyramid . It is a 4- simplex , the simplest possible convex regular 4-polytope (four-dimensional analogue of a polyhedron ), and is analogous to the tetrahedron in three dimensions and the triangle in two dimensions.
The regular pentachoron is bounded by regular tetrahedra , and is one of the six regular convex polychora , represented by Schläfli symbol {3,3,3}.




Contents


1 Geometry

1.1 Construction
1.2 Projections


2 Alternative names
3 Related polychora
4 Other forms
5 References
6 External links





//

Geometry
The pentachoron is self-dual , and its vertex figure is a tetrahedron. Its maximal intersection with 3-dimensional space is the triangular prism . Its dihedral angle is cos −1 (1/4), or approximately 75.52°.
Construction
The pentachoron can be constructed from a tetrahedron by adding a 5th vertex such that it is equidistant from all the other vertices of the tetrahedron. (The pentachoron is essentially a 4-dimensional pyramid with a tetrahedral base.)
The Cartesian coordinates of the vertices of an origin-centered regular pentachoron having edge length 2 are:






Projections


Projections to 2 dimensions



One of the possible projections of the pentachoron into 2 dimensions is the pentagram inscribed inside a pentagon, as seen here in its orthogonal projection inside its Petrie polygon .

Four orthographic projections , showing various viewpoints of the pentatope.




Projections to 3 dimensions



Stereographic projection wireframe (edge projected onto a 3-sphere ).

A 3D projection of a 5-cell performing a double rotation about two orthogonal planes.



The vertex-first projection of the pentachoron into 3 dimensions has a tetrahedral projection envelope. The closest vertex of the pentachoron projects to the center of the tetrahedron, as shown here in red. The farthest cell projects onto the tetrahedral envelope itself, while the other 4 cells project onto the 4 flattened tetrahedral regions surrounding the central vertex.

The edge-first projection of the pentachoron into 3 dimensions has a triangular dipyramidal envelope. The closest edge (shown here in red) projects to the axis of the dipyramid, with the three cells surrounding it projecting to 3 tetrahedral volumes arranged around this axis at 120 degrees to each other. The remaining 2 cells project to the two halves of the dipyramid and are on the far side of the pentatope.



The face-first projection of the pentachoron into 3 dimensions also has a triangular dipyramidal envelope. The nearest face is shown here in red. The two cells that meet at this face projects to the two halves of the dipyramid. The remaining three cells are on the far side of the pentatope from the 4D viewpoint, and are culled from the image for clarity. They are arranged around the central axis of the dipyramid, just as in the edge-first projection.

The cell-first projection of the pentachoron into 3 dimensions has a tetrahedral envelope. The nearest cell projects onto the entire envelope, and, from the 4D viewpoint, obscures the other 4 cells; hence, they are not rendered here.


Alternative names

5-cell
4-simplex
Pentatope
Pentahedroid (Henry Parker Manning)
Pen ( Jonathan Bowers : for pentachoron)
Hyperpyramid

Related polychora
The pentachoron (5-cell) is the simplest of 9 uniform polychora constructed from the [3,3,3] Coxeter group .





Name
5-cell
truncated 5-cell
rectified 5-cell
cantellated 5-cell
bitruncated 5-cell
cantitruncated 5-cell
runcinated 5-cell
runcitruncated 5-cell
omnitruncated 5-cell


Schläfli
symbol
{3,3,3}
t 0,1 {3,3,3}
t 1 {3,3,3}
t 0,2 {3,3,3}
t 1,2 {3,3,3}
t 0,1,2 {3,3,3}
t 0,3 {3,3,3}
t 0,1,3 {3,3,3}
t 0,1,2,3 {3,3,3}

multimedia

multimedia

Multimedia is media and content that uses a combination of different content forms . The term can be used as a noun (a medium with multiple content forms) or as an adjective describing a medium as having multiple content forms. The term is used in contrast to media which only use traditional forms of printed or hand-produced material. Multimedia includes a combination of text , audio , still images , animation , video , and interactivity content forms.
Multimedia is usually recorded and played, displayed or accessed by information content processing devices, such as computerized and electronic devices, but can also be part of a live performance. Multimedia (as an adjective) also describes electronic media devices used to store and experience multimedia content. Multimedia is distinguished from mixed media in fine art ; by including audio, for example, it has a broader scope. The term "rich media" is synonymous for interactive multimedia . Hypermedia can be considered one particular multimedia application.



Examples of individual content forms combined in multimedia:
























Text


Audio


Still Images

<